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State   Board 

of  Agriculture 

A i^ri cultural   'Jcho< 

'A.G 

in   Europe 

THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


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^grititltitral   Sr^0ls  in  Europe. 


FROM    THE 


%EPOET  OF  THE  SECRETARY 


\^, 


1864 


"-is-sS^^/SSlS^S^"*^ 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/agriculturalsclioOOmassiala 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  EUROPE. 


// 


FROM    THE    REPOET 


Ai> 


oi  tte  pass. 'Isaifl  of  ^^nmllmt 


'II 


1864. 


5*35 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  EUROPE. 


These  schools  are  of  two  kinds.  Those  which  are  connected, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  with  universities,  and  those  which 
are  independent  of  other  institutions.  With  the  former  there 
is,  in  most  cases,  an  experimental  farm  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
tration and  instruction,  though  the  students  are  not  expected  to 
work  on  it ;  but  in  some  cases  it  consists  of  a  simple  professor- 
ship, as  at  Edinburgh.  With  the  latter,  the  higher  institutes 
do  not  invariably  expect  the  students  to  labor,  though  this  is 
sometimes  the  case  ;  but  the  location  is,  nearly  always,  if  not 
invariably,  upon  a  large  estate,  wliere  the  students  can  work  or 
not,  as  they  choose,  the  farm  being  carried  on  by  hired  labor  or 
by  students  of  an  intermediate  or  lower  school  of  practical 
agriculture  connected  witli  it. 

I  visited  many  of  both  descriptions,  introduced  myself  to  the 
professors,  mingled  with  the  students,  attended  lectures,  joined 
in  excursions,  and  in  every  way  attempted  to  make  myself 
familiar  with  their  practical  working  and  efficiency. 

INSTITUTE    AT    JENA. 

As  soon  as  I  arrived  at  Jena  I  visited  the  laboratory  and  col- 
lections, was  introduced  to  the  director,  Dr.  Stockliardt,  and  was 
politely  entertained  by  his  agreeable  family.  He  very  kindly 
placed  much  information  in  regard  to  the  school  at  my  disposal. 

The  Agricultural  Institute  at  Jena  is  designed  to  educate 
young  farmers,  political  economists  and  financiers. 

For  such  yovmg  men,  especially,  as  have  already  spent  some 
time  in  the  practical  operations  of  farming  on  large  or  medium- 
sized  estates,  it  offers  an  opportunity  to  educate  themselves 
scientifically  in  their  department.  But  for  such  as  will  prepare 
themselves  for  political  economists  and  financiers,  it  offers  that 
special  instruction  in  agriculture  which  is  essential  to  them. 


"i  * 


6  .  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Connection  op  the  Institute  with  the  University. — The 
institute  is  an  integral  part  of  the  university  at  Jena,  and  is 
under  the  same  government.  The  director  and  most  of  the 
professors  are  also  connected  with  the  university ;  those  who 
enter  the  institute  for  farmers  are  matriculated  as  students  at 
the  university,  and  attain  thereby  all  the  rights,  and  assume 
also  all  the  responsibilities  of  academical  students,  the  same  as 
in  any  other  department  of  the  university. 

The  advantages  which  the  institute  gains  through  the  union 
with  the  university,  pertain  in  part  to  the  means  of  instruction, 
and  in  part  to  the  s[)irit  of  the  academical  life. 

To  the  means  of  instruction  of  the  university  whicli  the 
members  of  the  institute  can  enjoy,  belong,  besides  the  lectures 
on  those  parts  of  natural  science  and  political  economy  which 
are  not  to  be  liad  in  an  isolated  institute,  and  the  lectures  upon 
mathematics,  philosophy,  history,  general  law,  <tc.,  the  library, 
the  botanical  garden,  the  mineralogical  museum,  the  zoulogical 
cabinet,  the  observatory,  the  gymnasium,  the  riding,  swimming 
and  boxing  schools,  tfcc. 

In  consequence  of  the  use  of  these  means  of  instruction,  the 
institute  stands  in  an  independent  relation  with  the  university, 
which  secures  it  great  advantages;  yet  fur  more  important  is 
the  more  intimate  connection  with  it,  that  is,  the  necessity  that 
its  instruction  of  the  same  principles  should  be  more  general 
and  comprehensive,  and  fiuidamentally  scientific,  like  that  of 
the  university,  that  the  institute,  througli  an  intimate  sympathy 
in  the  emulation  of  the  university  students,  and  in  coiuiection 
with  them  should  realize  the  idea  of  German  university  life, 
and  thereby  advance  the  higher  education  of  students  in  agri- 
culture and  political  economy. 

Objects  of  Instruction. — The  sciences  useful  to  the  farmer 
which  the  institute  teaclios,  aie  as  follows: — 

1.  I'^ciences  reUiting  to  the  branches  of  agriculture,  i^cicnccs 
bearing  on  the  cultivation  of  agricultural  jJants,  in  its  whole 
range,  as  climate,  i-oils,  cultivation,  tillage,  manuring,  seed, 
after-culm  re,  harvesting,  culture  of  grains,  mercantile  and 
fodder  plants,  fruits,  Ac.  The  i)rcediiig  of  animals,  in  ils 
whole  range,  the  principles  of  l)reeding,  nourishment  and  care, 
raising,  keeping  and  use  of  particular  sorts  and  races  of 
domestic  animals ;  farm  management,   with   all  its   branches, 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  7 

book-keeping,  valuation,  <fec. ;  agricultural  excursions,  demon- 
strations and  conversations. 

2.  Fundamental  and  auxiliary  sciences  of  agriculture. 

National  economy,  agricultural  history  and  statistics,  agricul- 
tural law,  pliysics,  meteorology,  general  chemistry,  agricultural 
chemistry,  practice  in  the  laboratory,  qualitative  analysis, 
quantitative  demonstration  of  agricultural  materials,  grains, 
oil  fruits,  guano,  other  kinds  of  manures,  soils,  plant  ashes. 
Mineralogy  and  geognosy,  including  knowledge  and  classifica- 
tion of  soils.  Botany,  with  special  reference  to  the  physiology 
of  i)lants;  including  botanical  excursions,  instruction  in  for- 
estiy,  cai'c  and  use  of  woodlands.  Gardening.  Zoology,  with 
sficcial  reference  to  knowledge  of  insects.  Veterinary  science, 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  domestic  animals  on  the  farm ; 
pathology  and  therapeutics,  chirurgery,  shoeing,  &c.  Mechanics 
and  machineiy,  agricultural  machinery  and  implements,  their 
construction  and  use.  Agricultural  technology,  distilling,  brew- 
ing," sugai-  making,  bread  making,  manufacture  of  vinegar, 
including  technological  excursions.  Geodosy,  use  of  the  sur- 
veyor's chain  and  theodolite,  field  measuring,  levelUng,  agricul- 
tural mechanics. 

The  arrangement  of  these  various  branches  is  such,  that  those 
bearing  on  agriculture,  national  economy  and  the  natural 
sciences  generally,  are  repeated  annually,  some  of  them  twice  a 
year,  and  ollicrs  only  every  two  or  tliree  years. 

For  the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  the  fine  arts  and 
all  gymnastic  exercises,  the  university  offers  extraordinary 
opportunities  to  those  who  desire  it. 

Besides  tlic  above-named  lectures,  excursions  and  conversa- 
tions, the  institute  offers  all  essential  means  of  instruction,  such 
as  the  pul)lic  domain  at  Zwiitzen  and  Lehesten,  embracing 
about  1,400  acres ;  with  a  numerous  herd  of  cattle,  a  distillery, 
brewery,  and  silk-raising  estaldishment,  which  serve  as  means 
of  illustration  ; 

An  agricultural  botanic  garden,  attached  to  the  botanic  gar- 
den of  the  university  ; 

A  well-appointed  chemical  laboratory  with  a  sufficient  number 
of  convenient  working  desks  ; 

Collections  of  minerals  and  earths,  dried  plants  and  seeds, 
models  of  IVuits,  collections  of  insects,  technical  ajiparatus,  so 
far  as  requisite  for  reference  in  the  lectures  ; 


8  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

A  valuable  agricultural  library  for  the  use  of  the  students ; 

A  reading  room  wlicrc  all  the  agricultural  papers  arc  taken  ; 

An  infirmary  for  sick  animals,  with  a  room  for  operations  and 
necessary  tools  ; 

A  rich  collection  of  pathological  preparations  and  objects. 

Special  lots  arc  set  apart  for  experiments.  Besides  this  there 
is  a  government  experimental  station  at  Jena.  The  object  of 
this  is  to  develop  the  natural  laws  which  relate  to  agriculture, 
through  scientific  investigations  and  experiments  conducted  in 
the  most  scientific  manner.  It  is  requisite  that  young  men  should 
learn  how  to  institute  and  conduct  scientific  investigations. 

Kind  op  Instruction. — The  university  is  distinguished  from 
other  institutes  of  instruction,  less  through  what  it  teaches  than 
the  mode  adopted.  The  agricultural  institute  is  a  constituent 
part  of  the  university  and  must  be  an  active  member  of  its 
.organism,  and  therefore  it  must  maintain  a  mode  of  teaching 
consistent  with  the  claims  of  a  university,  that  Ihe  instruction 
imparted  may  incite  to  self-activity ;  that  the  student  may 
attain,  by  the  wise  use  of  academical  freedom,  the  objects  of 
his  college  course,  as  far  as  possible,  through  self-culture  ;  and 
he  may,  as  far  as  possible,  be  thoroughly  educated,  not  in  one 
or  two  branches,  but  in  all.  So  far  as  regards  instruction 
in  agriculture,  the  professors  strive  to  make  it  enthusiastic, 
intelligible  and  practical. 

Course  of  Instruction. — The  course  of  instruction  in  the 
principal  sciences  can  be  completed  in  four  half-yearly  terms, 
but  the  student  is  advised  to  pay  more  attention  to  auxiliary 
branches,  which  require  a  three  years  course.  But  the  sulnjects 
are  so  arranged  that  new  members  can  enter  twice  a  year,  in 
spring  and  in  autumn.  Every  one  on  entering  is  expected  to 
make  known  his  objects  and  intentions,  and  tlic  time  he  can 
devote  to  theoretical  studies. 

Tlie  beginning  and  ending  of  the  institute  lectures  arc  gov- 
erned l)y  the  terms  and  vacations  of  the  university,  and  public 
announcements'  arc  made  through  the  public  journals.  They 
generally  begin  at  the  end  of  April  and  the  end  of  October. 
The  members  of  the  institute  devcjte  their  vacations  to  agricul- 
tural excursions  or  to  a  visit  to  some  landed  estate.  Tlie 
students  can  room  in  the  buildings  of  the  university,  or  in 
private  houses  in  the  city. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  9 

The  cost  of  tuition  for  agricultural  students  is,  for  the  first 
term,  64  Prussian  thalers,  or  $40.50,  for  the  second,  $36,  for 
the  third,  $18,  for  the  fourth,  $4.50.  There  is  a  matriculation 
fee  at  the  university  of  about  $5,  a  half-yearly  lecture  fee  of  75 
cents,  a  payment  to  the  treasury  of  a  hospital  society,  a  sort  of 
insurance  against  sickness,  of  25  cents,  and  a  few  other  small 
regular  sums  to  be  paid,  including  the  diploma  on  graduation, 
of  $1.62^.  Then,  if  the  agricultural  students  attend  any  of  the 
strictly  university  courses  of  lectures,  they  have  to  pay  the  same 
fees  as  other  students.  For  lodging,  including  study  and 
sleeping  room,  furnished  with  sofa,  chairs,  table,  bed  and  other 
necessary  articles,  and  attendance,  from  $7.50  to  $15  a  term. 
For  heating  and  lighting,  in  winter,  $7.50  to  $12 ;  also  $1.50 
for  "  boots,"  and  $3  to  $5  a  term  for  washing. 

The  candidate  for  admission  must  bring  a  certificate  from  the 
magistrate  of  the  place  where  he  has  last  resided ;  a  consent  of 
father  or  guardian  to  enter  the  institute ;  a  certificate  of  his 
teachers,  and  an  explicit  description  of  his  past  life.  He  must 
have  sufficient  knowledge  of  elementary  studies  and  the  German 
language  to  understand  scientific  lectures,  but  no  formal  exam- 
ination is  required  on  admission. 

An  attendance  at  a  high  school,  or  a  polytechnic  school,  at 
least  up  to  the  higher  classes,  or  at  some  practical  school,  and 
one,  two  or  three  years  passed  in  practical  work  on  a  farm,  is 
recommended  as  a  preparation  for  admission  to  this  institute. 

The  following  is  the  arrangement  of  lectures  at  this  insti- 
tute : — 


10 


BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


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•  SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  11 

There  are  eleven  professors  and  instructors  of  the  institute. 
The  number  of  students  is  at  present  one  hundred  and  ten, 
ranging  in  ages  from  18  to  21  years,  I  should  think.     The 

SCHOOL   OF   PRACTICAL   FARMING 

is  at  Zwatzen,  but  a  short  distance  off.  In  that  the  sons  of 
peasants  are  educated,  and  they  have  to  work  their  way. 

The  general  oversight  of  this  practical  school  resides  in  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior  of  the  Grand  Duchy,  the  direction  is 
committed  to  Prof.  Stockhardt,  of  Jena,  and  the  immediate 
management  to  a  superintendent  on  the  place. 

The  object  of  the  school  is  to  give  its  pupils  an  education 
which  will  fit  them  for  the  skilful  practical  management  of 
middling-sized  and  small  estates. 

The  course  of  instruction  extends  over  two  years,  and  is 
devoted  to  the  following  objects :  Religion,  the  German  lan- 
guage, arithmetic  and  geometry,  drawing,  singing,  geography 
and  history  ;  piiysics  and  natural  history,  agriculture,  meadow 
management,  fruit  and  garden  culture,  cattle-breeding,  instruc- 
tion in  the  carrying  on  of  the  farm  in  the  most  skilful  manner, 
book-keeping,  agricultural  mechanics,  and  field  measuring. 

The  division  of  these  objects  of  instruction  is  so  arranged 
that  in  addition  to  the  school  studies  comes  teaching  in  general 
preparatory  sciences  and  the  different  branches  of  agriculture. 
Besides  suitable  means  of  instruction,  is  the  opportunity  of 
observation  on  the  estate  at  Zwatzen,  and  the  advantage  of 
veterinary  lectures  and  teacliing  in  the  Veterinary  School  at 
Jena. 

The  employment  on  the  land  belonging  to  the  school,  which 
has  recently  been  increased,  as  well  as  in  the  workshop  for  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  serves  as  a  practical 
illustration  of  the  instruction  in  the  school,  and  as  a  means  of 
preparation  for  the  future  calling. 

Tlie  pupils  live  with  the  family  of  the  superintendent  and 
his  assistants,  and  all  eat  at  the  same  table.  They  are  expected 
to  have  had  some  practice  in  farm  labor  on  admittance. 
Natives  pay  80  thalcrs  or  860  a  year,  others  875,  for  instruc- 
tion, lodging  and  board.  The  admission  of  new  students  takes 
place  in  the  spring  and  fall. 


12  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE.  • 

Here  is  a  notice  translated  from  the  printed  circular,  or  pro- 
gramme :  "  Every  pupil,  as  he  enters,  has  to  bring  with  him 
a  bed,  with  three  coverlids, — the  school  furnishes  bedstead  and 
mattress, — one  Sunday  and  two  week-day  suits,  a  trunk  to 
keep  his  clothes  and  linen  in,  6  shirts,  2  pairs  of  stockings,  6 
towels,  6  pocket-handkerchiefs,  2  blue  aprons,  2  pairs  of  boots, 
a  pair  of  slippers,  a  comb,  a  wash-bowl,  2  plates,  a  couple  of 
knives  and  forks,  a  spoon,  a  couple  of  cups  and  saucers,  clothes 
and  shoe  brushes, — all  to  be  marked,  if  possible."  It's  a  con- 
venient thing  to  have  one's  wardrobe  so  minutely  specified. 

As  I  have  alluded  to  the  agricultural  school  at  Jena,  con- 
nected with  the  university,  I  will  also  say  a  word  in  regard  to 
one  or  two  others  of  the  same  class ;  that  is,  connected  in  a 
similar  manner  with  other  institutions. 

POPPELSDORP,   NEAR   BONN. 

The  agricultural  college  at  Poppelsdorf,  connected  with  the 
university  at  Bonn,  I  had  taken  in  my  trip  up  the  Rhine.  It 
is  some  ten  miles  above  Cologne,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  within  sight  of  the  far-famed  Siebenge- 
birge,  or  seven  mountains,  and  the  Drachenfols.  Bonn  is 
beautified  by  the  most  attractive  terraces  along  the  river,  and 
a  magnificent  avenue  leading  to  Poppelsdorf,  nearly  a  mile, 
studded  with  superb  chestnuts  in  double  rows,  on  either  side. 

I  called  at  once  on  Dr.  Hartstein,  the  director  of  the  agricul- 
tural school,  who  kindly  gave  me  the  information  I  sought  in 
regard  to  its  present  position  and  prosperity.  Close  by  his  house 
is  an  ancient  castle,  now  used  as  a  depository  of  the  extensive 
scientific  collections  belonging  to  the  university,  to  which  the 
students  in  agriculture  have  access.  The  model  farm  of  the 
agricultural  institute  is  also  close  at  hand.  This  is  used  for 
the  purposes  of  experiment,  and  the  crops  on  the  experimental 
plots  were  very  striking.  Extensive  mulberry  hedges  surround 
the  fields,  and  the  silk-worm  was  in  the  full  tide  of  successful 
operation. 

The  scientific  lectures  extend  over  not  only  tlie  branches 
requisite  in  the  department  of  agriculture,  but  also  the  funda- 
mental and  auxiliary  sciences  connected  with  it,  viz.: — 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  13 

(a.)  Agriculture  in  its  whole  range  as  a  leading  science, 
and  especially 

1.  The  science  of  tillage,  which  is  divided  into  a  general  and 
special  branch.  In  the  one  are  the  knowledge  of  soils,  manures 
and  the  working  of  the  land,  the  seed,  care  of  the  crop,  and 
harvesting  of  agricultural  products  in  general  is  taught ;  in  the 
other,  more  exact  instruction  is  given,  as  to  the  judicious  culti- 
vation of  each  one  of  these  products.  In  this  connection  the 
formation  of  permanent  meadows,  and  especially  artificial 
meadows,  is  considered. 

2.  The  science  of  cattle  breeding,  or  the  production  of  ani- 
mals, which  also  includes  a  general  and  a  special  course.  In 
the  first,  instruction  is  given  as  to  the  different  races,  the  pair- . 
ing,  breeding,  feeding,  care  and  fattening  of  cattle  in  general ; 
in  the  second,  the  breeding  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  swine,  &c., 
in  particular. 

3.  The  proper  farm  management,  taking  in  the  whole  agri- 
cultural profession,  and  including  general  rules  and  principles. 
The  principal  divisions  are,  the  objects  of  agriculture,  land, 
capital  and  labor,  sale  and  leasing  of  estates,  different  systems 
of  agriculture,  the  arrangement  and  direction  of  farms,  and  of 
taxation  and  book-keeping. 

To  these  lectures  upon  agriculture  are  added  those  on  fruit 
management,  garden,  fruit  and  vineyard  culture. 
(6.)  Chief  and  auxiliary  sciences. 

1.  The  natural  sciences,  chemistry  and  physics,  zoology, 
botany  and  mineralogy,  with  special  reference  to  agriculture, 
and  so  far  as  they  are  of  importance,  to  the  farmer  in  the  over- 
sight and  judicious  direction  of  his  estate. 

2.  Mathematical  sciences,  especially  applied  geometry,  stere- 
ometry, statics,  hydrostatics  and  machinery  connected  with  the 
practice  in  field  measuring,  levelling,  drawing  of  plans,  &c. 

3.  Popular  agricultural  literature,  so  far  as  it  serves  as  a 
safe  ground-work  for  practical  agricultural  instruction. 

4.  Agricultural  technology. 

5.  Veterinary  science. 

6.  Agricultural  mechanics. 

7.  Laws  relating  to  agriculture  and  the  cultivation  of  lands. 

8.  History,  statistics  and  literature  of  agriculture. 


14  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  farm  connected  with  the  institute  serves  for  practical 
illustration,  as  well  as  the  excursions  which,  from  time  to  time, 
are  taken  in  the  neighborhood,  and  during  vacations,  also,  into 
more  distant  regions.  The  institute  is  in  want  of  no  auxiliary 
means  of  making  the  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  most 
useful.  Among  these  are  the  chemical  laboratory,  erected  espe- 
cially for  agricultural  investigation,  the  physical  apparatus  and 
the  instruments  for  land  measuring  and  levelling,  the  collection 
©f  minerals  and  ores,  the  zoological  and  veterinary  collection, 
the  collection  of  models  and  implements,  and  of  wool,  the  library, 
the  economic  botanic  garden,  the  botanical  collection  and  the 
estate,  with  the  experimental  fields  and  the  vineyard.  Besides 
these  peculiar  means  of  instructioii  of  the  institute,  the  use  of 
the  rich  collections  and  apparatus  of  the  university,  the  royal 
university  library,  botanic  garden  and  natural  history  museum, 
is  available. 

Students  pay  an  entrance  fee  of  six  thalers,  and  a  fee  for 
tuition  of  forty  thalers,  or  thirty  dollars,  for  the  first  term. 
The  amount  for  the  second  term  is  thirty  thalers,  the  third 
twenty  and  the  fourth  ten,  making  the  fee  for  the  whole  course 
of  two  years,  one  hundred  thalers,  or  seventy-five  dollars. 

The  lectures  embrace  a  two  years'  course,  the  terms  being 
arranged  to  conform  with  those  of  the  university.  The  special 
plan  of  instruction  is  made  known  each  term.  The  school  is 
designed  for  those  who  desire  to  educate  themselves  for  skilful 
farmers,  and  those  who  devote  themselves  to  the  studies  of 
the  university,  and  at  the  same  time  wish  to  become  familiar 
with  the  operations  of  agriculture.  Students  who  are  entered 
at  the  university  of  Bonn,  and  enrolled  in  any  of  the  faculties, 
can  attend  the  agriculturalj  lectures  on  application  to  the 
director. 

Applicants  have  to  bring  certificates  of  good  conduct.  No 
proof  of  specific  attainments  in  elementary  school  studies  is 
required,  but  it  is  desired  that,  before  visiting  the  institute,  the 
pupil  should  be  familiar  with  the  practical  manipulations  of 
farming,  and  be  able  to  show  proof  of  it. 

On  admission,  the  student  is  matriculated  and  enrolled  in 
the  faculty  of  philosopliy  at  the  university.  By  this  he  acquires 
all  the  rights  and  undertakes  all  the  obligations  of  the  iiniver- 
sity  students. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  16 

The  whole  establishment  is  under  the  control  of  the  royal 
ministry  for  agricultural  affairs  at  Berlin. 

The  experimental  farm,  close  by  the  school,  contains,  I 
believe,  about  seventy  acres.  I  visited  the  barns  and  out-build- 
ings, all  of  which  appeared  to  be  in  admirable  condition,  a  place 
for  everything  and  everything  in  its  place. 

But  seven  or  eight  cows  are  kept,  and  those  are  all  Dutch, 
which  are  thought  there  to  be  among  the  best  for  milk.  No 
experiments  appear  to  be  made  there  to  test  the  comparative 
merits  of  different  breeds.  A  long  series  of  experiments  in  the 
fields  near  the  house  seemed  to  be  conducted  in  the  most  careful 
manner.  Many  of  the  plots  of  wheat  were  of  extraordinary 
growth.  A  great  variety  of  plants  are  cultivated,  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  instruction. 

I  visited  Gissen,  Gottingen  and  Halle,  with  each  of  which 
universities  there  is  an  agricultural  department  connected,  but 
they  do  not  differ  materially,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  from  those 
at  Jena  and  Bonn. 

GEISBERG. 

The  agricultural  institute  at  Geisberg  near  Wiesbaden  is  the 
principal  if  not  the  only  one  of  the  kind  in  the  Duchy  of  Nassau. 
I  visited  it  in  July.  It  stands  on  an  elevated  plateau  overlook- 
ing a  most  enchanting  region  of  country,  with  the  fashionable 
invalid  resort  of  Wiesbaden  close  by,  while  at  a  little  distance 
rolls  the  winding  Rhine  between  its  vine-clad  hills.  The  cele- 
brated vineyard  of  Joliannisberg  is  not  far  down  the  river. 
This  school  differs  from  most  others  in  giving  instruction  only 
in  winter. 

It  is  on  the  isolated  and  independent  plan,  and  is  designed 
for  the  instruction  of  practical  farmers,  without  teaching  prac- 
tice on  the  place.  Applicants  must  be  sixteen  years  old, 
possess  a  good  elementary  education,  and  a  goo.d  "  character." 
They  have  to  bring  a  written  certificate  of  willingness  on  the 
part  of  the  parent  or  guardian  that  they  should  enter  the 
school,  and  it  is  expected  that  pupils  shall  have  spent  one  or 
more  summers  in  work  on  the  farm  before  they  enter.  If  the 
requisite  certificate  of  proficiency  in  the  elementary  studies  can- 
not be  produced,  or  if  it  is  not  satisfactory,  the  applicant  is 
examined,  and  either  rejected  or  accepted  with  conditions,  not 


16  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

iinliko  the  practice  in  entering  Harvard  College,  where  compar- 
atively few  get  in  without  "  conditions." 

Each  pupil  is  required  to  attend  all  the  lectures  ;  but  they 
have  a  class  of  pupils  as  they  have  at  Hohenheim,  called  hospi- 
tanten,  or  students  who  take  only  the  partial  course. 

The  theoretical  instruction  is  given  in  a  regular  course  of  two 
winters,  the  term  beginning  on  the  fifteenth  of  October  of  each 
year,  and  ending  on  the  thirty-first  of  March.  During  the 
intervening  summer  they  are  either  at  home,  at  work  on  the 
farm,  or,  if  they  desire  it,  the  director  of  the  institute  procures 
them  suitable  places  with  skilful  practical  farmers. 

Natives  of  Nassau  pay  no  tuition.  Outsiders  pay  forty-four 
florins,  or  about  eighteen  dollars,  a  year.  All  the  pupils  board 
in  the  town  of  Wiesbaden.  The  instruction  is  by  lectures  and 
written  and  verbal  questions  on  the  studies.  After  the  return 
of  the  students  from  their  summer's  work  on  the  farm,  they  are 
required  within  six  weeks  to  present  a  full  written  detail  of 
operations,  which,  after  suitable  corrections,  are  returned  to  the 
writer. 

The  parents  or  guardians  are  informed,  from  time  to  time,  of 
the  industry  and  conduct  of  the  pupil.  Gambling,  so  fashion- 
able and  exciting  at  AViesbaden,  is  forbidden,  and  no  student  is 
allowed  to  smoke  or  to  keep  a  dog. 

The  institute  possesses  a  library,  which  appeared  to  be  toler- 
ably well  stocked,  very  good  collections  and  fine  lecture  and 
study  rooms.  It  is  on  rather  a  small  scale  as  compared  with 
some  others,  though  it  may  be  called  one  of  the  superior  class. 
It  was  founded  in  1835,  and,  as  may  be  inferred  from  what  has 
been  said  above,  on  the  principle  that  it  is  of  no  use  to  try  to 
teach  the  theory  and  practice  at  the  same  school.  There  is  a 
small  farm  connected  with  the  school,  but,  judging  from  the 
helter-skelter,  or  generally  mixed-up  condition  of  everything 
about  tlic  premises,  I  should  think  they  were  quite  right  in  not 
attempting  to  teach  practice  there.  Old  ploughs,  drags,  carts, 
harrows  and  every  thing  else  lay  around  the  buildings  in  no 
small  confusion.  When  I  drove  into  the  yard  I  felt  sure  we 
had  made  some  mistake,  and  had  got  upon  the  premises  of  a 
very  slovenly  farmer,  but  the  driver  was  sure  he  was  right,  and 
the  result  justified  his  topographical  knowledge.  The  farm 
buildings  are  irregular  and  crowded,  not  large  or  imposing,  but 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  17 

rather  ordinary  in  every  respect,  though  the  building  used  by 
the  students  and  the  collections  was  better. 

These  collections  consisted  of  minerals,  birds,  quadrupeds, 
seeds,  grains  and  grasses,  and  a  fine  collection  of  wax  fruits. 

The  instruction  embraces,  in  the  first  term  or  winter,  the 
German  language,  arithmetic,  botany,  mineralogy,  physics,  gen- 
eral agriculture,  cultivation  of  meadows,  rural  architecture 
and  veterinary  science.  In  the  second  winter  the  boys  take  up 
zoology,  physics,  farm  accounts,  special  agriculture,  special 
zootechny,  horticulture,  technology,  veterinary  medicine  and 
composition. 

The  director  had  left  for  the  International  Exhibition  at 
Hamburg,  so  that  I  was  obliged  to  find  my  way  about  without 
much  assistance.  The  price  of  farm  labor  there,  I  learned,  was 
thirty-six  kreutzers,  or  twenty-four  cents,  a  day,  the  men  board- 
ing themselves. 

HOHENHEIM. 

Many  a  grand  enterprise,  like  many  an  illustrious  man,  grows 
up  from  small  beginnings.  Schwertz,  who  may  be  called  the 
founder  of  the  agricultural  school  at  Hohenheim,  began  its 
direction  towards  the  close  of  the  year  1818,  with  only  eight 
pupils,  six  of  whom  were  natives  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  two  from 
abroad.  It  is  now  generally  admitted,  and  I  think  with  justice, 
to  stand  at  the  head  of  the  institutions  for  agricultural  education 
in  Europe.  I  propose,  therefore,  to  enter,  to  some  extent,  into 
the  details  of  this  establishment,  and  to  dwell  upon  them  at 
length,  even  at  the  risk  of  being  tedious. 

I  arrived  at  this  celebrated  agricultural  institute  on  the  29th 
of  July,  and  took  a  room,  such  as  is  occupied  by  the  students,  in 
the  building,  prepared  to  stay  some  days,  or  till  I  could  "  get 
the  hang  of  it."  It  was  a  strange  feeling  that  came  over  me  at 
first,  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  rollicking  German  students, 
rooming  among  them,  eating  with  them,  and  mingling  with  them 
in  their  walks,  in  the  lecture  room,  and  in  the  long  corridors  of 
this  quaint  old  ducal  palace,  a  monument  of  the  wealth,  the 
luxury  and  the  morals  of  a  century  ago,  on  which  hangs  a  tale, 
which  I  have  not  time  to  unfold. 

Hohenheim  is  some  seven  or  eight  miles  from  Stuttgart,  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg,  the  road  lying  through 
3 


18  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

vineyards,  and  orchards  and  royal  forests.  Long  before  my 
arrival  at  head-quarters  it  was  easy  to  see  that  I  was  riding 
through  the  fields  of  the  institute.  The  fruit  trees  were  labelled 
and  numbered,  the  fields  and  the  rotation  upon  them,  were 
indicated  by  stakes  and  cards,  and  everything  gave  evidence  of 
thrift  and  skill  and  scientific  management.  What  capital  roads ! 
Nothing  but  a  royal  decree  could  have  lined  them  everywhere 
with  cherry  and  apple  and  pear  trees,  stretching  away  as  far  as 
the  eye  could  reach.  No  fences  mar  the  open  landscape,  either 
along  the  highway  or  on  the  division  lines.  There  is  a  little  foot- 
path that  leads  through  the  woods,  a  beautiful,  shaded  walk  to 
Kleinhohenheim. 

But  here  we  are  at  the  very  door,  at  this  fountain-head  of 
agricultural  science.  I  introduced  myself  at  once  to  Professor 
Rau,  whom  I  already  knew  well  by  reputation,  and  found  him 
quite  free  to  communicate  all  the  information  in  his  power ;  to 
accompany  me  to  the  various  parts  of  the  establishment  and  the 
farm,  and  to  give  me  access  to  the  lectures  which  should  take 
place  during  my  stay.  He  placed  in  my  hands  a  beautiful  royal 
octavo,  which  had  just  appeared,  a  Beschreibung  der  land-und 
forstwirlhschaftlichen  Akademie  Hohenheim,  containing  many 
illustrations  and  historical  sketches  of  the  estate,  the  course  of 
instruction  and  management  of  each  department,  the  experi- 
ments and  the  stock,  and  to  this,  and  the  other  documents 
which  he  gave  me,  I  am  indebted  for  much  of  the  information  I 
am  about  to  present,  in  regard  to  this  school  of  agriculture. 

Ilohenheim  really  consisted,  for  some  years,  of  three  quite 
distinct  schools,  which,  though  erected  on  the  same  estate,  and, 
as  it  were,  under  the  same  roof,  were,  and  still  are,  as  indepen- 
dent of  each  other,  in  most  respects,  as  if  at  opposite  ends  of  the 
kingdom. 

1st.  The  institute  or  school  of  agriculture,  for  young  gentle- 
men. 

2d.  The  school  of  forestry. 

3d.  The  school  of  practical  farming,  for  the  sons  of  peasants. 

The  lands,  plantations,  gardens  and  nurseries  connected  with 
the  old  chateau  are  wholly  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  the  three 
establishments,  and  serve  professors  as  well  as  pupils  for  illus- 
tration and  experiment ;  while  the  extensive  royal  forests  in  the 
neighborhood  and  lengthy  excursions  made  every  year,  give  a 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  19 

wide  range  of  observation,  especially  for  students  in  the  manage- 
ment of  forests. 

The  agricultural  institute  originated,  in  a  measure,  from  the 
establishment  of  the  agricultural  society  of  Wiirtemberg,  in  1817, 
when  the  necessity  of  a  model  farm  and  au  institute  of  instruc- 
tion and  experiment  became  strikingly  apparent,  as  a  means  of 
the  development  and  the  elevation  of  agriculture  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  people.         *^ 

The  success  and  popularity  of  the  school,  founded  in  1806 
by  the  illustrious  Thaer,  at  Moglin,  in  Prussia,  had  no  doubt 
contributed  largely  to  this  feeling  among  the  agriculturists  of 
Wiirtemberg.  Timer's  enterprise  was  undertaken  at  first  on 
his  own  private  account,  and  so  continued  till  the  year  1819, 
thirteen  years  after  its  commencement.  It  so  happened  that 
tlie  introduction  and  spread  of  fine-woolled  or  Merino  sheep 
into  Northern  Europe,  and  especially  upon  the  farm  at  Mog- 
lin, near  Berlin,  concurred  to  attract  to  this  private  effort  a 
large  share  of  public  attention,  while  the  reputation  of  Thaer 
rapidly  grew  at  home  and  abroad,  not  only  as  a  consequence  of 
the  success  of  his  school,  but  likewise  from  his  valuable  publi- 
cations. His  school  was  therefore  taken  under  the  patronage 
of  the  government,  as  a  royal  academy,  but  the  management  of 
the  estate  still  remained  at  the  risk  and  expense  of  the  owners, 
th«  instruction  only  being  paid  by  the  government.  This  led 
to  a  mixed  arrangement,  the  evils  of  which  very  soon  began  to 
develop  themselves,  and  in  time  to  be  avoided  at  Hoheuheim, 
where  the  whole  establishment  was  taken  under  the  control  of 
the  government,  and  located  upon  a  royal  domain. 

A  part  of  this  domain  happening,  at  that  time,  to  be  under 
lease,  it  was  necessary  to  begin  the  instruction  on  the  small 
adjoining  estate  of  Carlshof,  consisting  of  only  255  acres.  A 
small  beginning  was  therefore  a  matter  of  necessity,  and  this 
was  to  continue  till  the  year  1822,  when  the  broad  estates  of 
Hohenheim  would  be  at  the  service  of  the  institute,  at  tlie  head 
of  which  stood  Schwertz,  who  was  placed,  by  the  confidence  of 
the  king,  in  full  control  of  the  property,  with  only  the  assistance 
of  a  farm  inspector  and  two  of  his  pupils.  He  personally 
arranged  everything,  and  even  managed  the  finances  of  the 
school,  which,  for  the  first  two  years,  remained  on  this  simple 
foundation,  as  a  purely  agricultural  institute.     But  in  ihe  year 


20  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

1820,  the  school  for  the  management  of  forests,  which  had 
previously  existed  at  Stuttgart,  was  removed  to  Carlshof  and 
placed  under  the  direction  of  Schwertz,  though  still  independent 
for  all  the  purposes  of  instruction.  The  greater  number  of 
students  were  then,  as  they  are  at  present,  students  of  agricul- 
ture. Last  year  ('61-62)  for  instance,  there  were  124  agricul- 
tural students  and  but  37  foresters. 

The  limited  number  of  foresters  may*^be  owing  in  part  to  tlie 
rigorous  conditions  of  admission  to  the  forest  school,  the  appli- 
cants for  which  must  have  practiced  in  the  management  of 
woods  for  at  least  two  years  under  a  head  steward  of  forests. 
It  was  thought  that  a  general  connection  of  instruction  in 
forestry  with  that  in  agriculture  would  have  some  important  ad- 
vantages, as,  for  instance,  for  the  pupils  of  the  agricultural  insti- 
tute, who  are  either  owners  or  to  become,  in  future,  stewards 
of  large  estates,  in  which  the  management  of  forests  would 
often  be  of  great  importance,  while  the  contact  of  a  class  of 
students  who  have  to  submit  to  a  rigid  examination  on  which 
their  future  success  will  largely  depend,  would  be  very  useful 
as  an  example  of  good  conduct  and  studious  habits,  to  students 
in  the  agricultural  institute  who  are  not  obliged  to  work.  It 
would  be  a  desirable  stimulant  to  exertion.  Tiien  the  union 
would  enable  the  two  to  give  a  wider  range  to  the  instruction 
in  both,  the  students  of  each  having  an  opportunity  to  a\iail 
themselves  of  lectures  which  they  could  not  otherwise  have,  so 
that  the  foresters,  for  instance,  could  get  a  general  knowledge 
of  agriculture  which  they  would  not  gain  in  a  special  school. 

Experience  has  accordingly  justified  this  change,  and  the 
arrangement  still  exists. 

Originally  the  whole  instruction  in  agriculture  was  given  by 
Schwertz,  who  taught  general  and  special  plant  culture,  cattle 
breeding,  vine  culture,  book-keeping,  &c.  Two  professors  were 
soon  api)ointed,  one  of  mathematics  and  the  other  of  the  auxili- 
ary natural  sciences,  while  instruction  in  veterinary  science  was 
given  V>y  the  medical  councillor-in-chief  of  the  government,  who 
went  over  from  Stuttgart  once  a  week  for  the  purpose.  The 
removal  of  the  forest  school  added  one  only  to  the  corps  of 
instruction,  but  on  the  acquisition,  in  1822,  of  the  domain  at 
Hohcnheim,  the  farming  operations  became  still  more  extended, 
and  men  scientifically  educated  were  required  in  each   chief 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  21 

branch  of  farming,  and  an  instructor  in  sheep  breeding,  another 
in  agricultural  technology,  and  another  in  the  culture  and 
management  of  fruit-trees,  were  appointed,  from  time  to  time,  as 
the  exigencies  required. 

Pupils  in  the  higher  or  agricultural  institute  paid,  if  natives 
of  Wiirteraberg,  $164  for  tuition,  lodging  and  board,  or  if  from 
abroad,  1205  ;  and  all  ate  at  a  general  table.  But  in  1826  it 
was  thought  more  convenient  to  separate  the  cost  of  board  from 
the  other  charges,  and  the  price  of  tuition  and  room  was  fixed 
at  $41  for  natives  and  $123  for  strangers.  All  were  required 
to  room  in  the  building  till  1842,  since  whicli  time  the  pupils 
have  had  the  liberty  to  board  out  of  the  institute  if  they 
choose. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  agricultural  institute  is  founded  iipon 
a  large  and  liberal  basis,  and  everything  that  strikes  the  eye 
would  lead  one  to  think  that  it  is  the  chief  and  most  important 
object ;  yet,  important  as  it  is,  it  is  probable  that  the  practical 
results  of  the  School  of  Practical  Farming,  the  Ackerbanschule, 
are  quite  as  valuable  as  those  of  the  institute,  which  makes 
greater  pretensions  and  enjoys  greater  facilities  for  instruction 
in  the  higher  sciences. 

Tliis  school  of  Practical  Farming  was  begun  at  the  close  of 
1818,  with  ten  stout  boys  of  14  years  of  age  from  the  orplians 
in  Stuttgart  and  other  cities.  These  boys  had  but  one  instruc- 
tor, who  had  to  keep  them  at  work  and  train  them  to  the 
greatest  possible  activity,  order,  and  good  conduct.  They 
received  to  some  extent  the  theoretical  instruction  of  the 
students  in  the  higher  institute,  but  in  1824  they  began  to  have 
more  or  less  theoretical  instruction  adapted  to  the  capacity  of 
each,  and  to  their  future  designs. 

This  practical  school  was  modified  in  1829,  when  the  num- 
ber was  extended  to  25,  and  instead  of  taking  orphans  as 
heretofore,  tlie  sons  of  peasants  especially,  were  to  be  admitted, 
between  the  ages  of  16  and  18,  who,  as  they  were  already 
familiar  with  the  ordinary  routine  of  farm  work,  could  be 
immediately  useful  on  the  farm  and  taught  the  improved 
processes  of  agriculture  in  a  shorter  time. 

They  are  required  to  spend  three  years  at  Hohenheim,  and 
must  bo  natives  of  Wiirtemberg.  Their  instruction  in  the 
theory  of  agriculture  is  limited  to  two  hours  a  day. 


22  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

The  arrangement  with  regard  to  orplians  was  kept  up,  the 
number  being  limited  to  twenty-five,  who  were  required  to 
spend  two  years  at  Hohenheim,  in  order  to  get  sufficient  agri- 
cultural knowledge  to  be  capable  of  becoming  teachers  in 
schools  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture  in  their  own  dis- 
tricts, but  this  arrangement  was  given  up  in  1828  on  account 
of  the  cost. 

Special  Courses. — A  school  of  gardening  was  established 
in  1844  at  the  same  place,  but  still  independent  of  the  others. 
Six  pupils  only  were  admitted  into  this,  and  each  must  have 
attained  the  age  of  seventeen  years.  Each  applicant  must  have 
spent  three  years  as  gardener  or  vintager,  or  attended  the 
course  at  a  farm  school,  and  the  garden  school  aimed  in  one 
course  to  perfect  what  had  previously  been  begun  in  the  art  of 
gardening  and  fruit  culture.  Then,  in  addition,  there  were 
established  at  tiie  same  place,  special  courses  for  orchardists, 
meadow  husbandry,  shepherds  and  school  teachers. 

The  course  for  orchardists,  which  has  been  continued  since 
1850,  was  designed  for  young  men  of  18  years  and  upward 
who  wished  to  prepare  themselves  for  managers  of  the  fruit 
trees  belonging  to  the  communes  or  parishes,  of  which  there 
are  immense  numbers  everywhere  around  the  villages  and  high- 
ways of  the  kingdom.  This  course  lasts  from  four  to  five 
weeks  in  the  spring  of  each  year,  and  a  few  days  later  in  summer 
for  practice  in  grafting.  On  account  of  the  crowd  of  applicants 
to  this  course,  in  the  last  few  years,  from  all  parts  of  the  king- 
dom, it  became  necessary  to  extend  it  to  three  courses  a  year, 
with  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pupils  in  each,  so  that  now  this 
theoretic  and  practical  instruction  in  fruit  culture  continues 
from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  end  of  May,  and  a  continua- 
tion of  the  course  occurs  also  in  August. 

Tiie  five  weeks'  course  upon  the  technical  management  of 
meadows,  has  been  continued  regularly  in  the  spring  since 
1855,  whenever  there  has  been  a  sufficient  number  of  appli- 
cants. It  includes  the  art  of  treating  meadows,  field  drainage, 
the  establishment  of  boundaries  or  practice  in  applied  geom- 
etry, for  tliose  who  wish  to  perfect  themselves  in  farm  engineer- 
ing.    The  numl)er  of  attendants  oii  tiiis  course  lias  averaged  8. 

The  course  of  instruction  for  sliepherds  was  opened  for  the 
first  time  in  1855,  and  has  continued  uninterruptedly  since  with 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  23 

an  average  of  10  to  12  attendants.  Applicants  are  required  to 
be  over  20  years  old  and  to  have  been  in  practice  with  shep- 
herds four  years.  The  course  takes  place  in  February  and 
lasts  four  weeks. 

To  these  courses  was  added  another  in  1860,  for  school  teach- 
ers, which  is  limited  to  three  weeks  in  the  autumn  vacations  of 
the  public  schools.  The  principal  object  is  to  provide  the 
means  of  a  continuation  of  their  agricultural  education,  which 
was  found  to  be  needed  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Such 
teachers  only  are  invited  to  attend  this  course  as  have  busied 
themselves  on  their  own  or  on  the  school  grounds,  with  agricul- 
tural labors,  in  the  formation  of  means  for  improvement  in 
agricultural  education.  The  instruction  embraces  the  whole 
of  agricultural  labor,  with  special  researches  into  the  imperfec- 
tions and  failings  which  appear  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
The  number  who  may  attend  each  course  is  fixed  at  25. 

Instruction  in  these  several  courses  is  given  partly  by  the 
regular  corps  of  professors  of  the  institute,  and  partly  by  per- 
sons from  abroad  who  make  a  specialty  of  certain  pursuits,  who 
go  to  Hohenheim  for  the  purpose,  and  the  arrangement  is  such 
that  the  pupils  during  their  stay  in  Hohenheim  are  occupied 
the  whole  of  each  day,  partly  in  hearing  lectures,  and  partly  in 
demonstrations  in  the  field,  in  the  stalls,  in  the  collections,  or 
in  excursions,  and  partly  in  the  solution  of  prescribed  tasks. 

These  may  be  called  regularly  established  courses  of  special 
instruction.  But  in  addition,  what  may  be  called  extraordinary 
or  occasional  courses,  are  also  given,  as,  for  instance,  in  1853,  a 
course  upon  silk  culture,  another  on  bee  culture  and  on  the 
nursery  business.  They  took  place  in  the  afternoon  of  each 
Wednesday,  from  four  to  six,  and  were  attended  by  twenty 
young  men,  mostly  sub-teachers  or  assistants  in  the  schools. 
In  1855,  another  course  was  given  upon  silk  culture,  designed 
for  the  pupils  of  the  normal  schools,  of  whom  one  hundred  and 
thirty-four  attended.  A  similar  course  of  agricultural  instruc- 
tion was  given  in  1861  for  the  school  teachers  in  the  jurisdiction 
of  Stuttgart,  in  which  fifty-two  teachers  of  the  public  scliools 
engaged.  The  lectures  were  accompanied  by  demonstrations 
in  the  field,  and  in  the  collections,  an  afternoon  of  each  week, 
and  the  design  was  to  prepare  the  teachers  for  holding  evening 
agricultural  schools  in  winter.     And  so  in  1852-3,  on  the  occa- 


24  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

siou  of  considerable  changes  in  the  laws  regarding  distilled 
liquors,  two  courses  of  instruction  were  given  to  the  revenue 
officers  upon  the  processes  of  distilling.  One  lasted  ten  days 
and  the  other  twelve,  and  was  attended  by  over  sixty  officers  of 
the  revenue  who  desired  the  information.  And  so,  also,  a  vast 
amount  of  labor  is  done  and  information  imparted  in  answer 
to  letters  and  through  numerous  publications  by  the  professors, 
all  of  which  widen  the  circle  of  influence  of  the  institution. 

The  means  of  instruction  in  the  institute  proper  were  limited, 
as  already  stated,  at  the  foundation,  to  a  physical  and  mathe- 
matical apparatus,  an  outfit  for  the  chemical  laboratory  and  a 
little  natural  history  collection,  for  which  the  queen  had 
contributed  a  thousand  florins,  and  this  was  confined  strictly  to 
agriculture.  Still  with  the  small  number  of  pupils  it  was  made 
the  means  of  important  instruction  in  special  branches.  As  for 
the  farm  a  greatly  improved  arrangement  of  lands  was  adopted 
than  that  common  in  the  neighborhood,  either  then  or  at 
present.  Schwertz,  who  was  born  at  Coblentz  in  1759,  and 
who  was  familiar  with  the  agriculture  of  Belgium,  where  it  was 
carried  on  in  the  highest  perfection  then  known,  not  only  got 
many  improved  implements  but  also  a  skilful  foreman  who  was 
acquainted  with  their  use  and  could  teach  it  to  others. 

An  implement  manufactory  formed  a  part  of  the  design,  one 
that  should  not  only  supply  the  wants  of  the  farm  with  the  best 
tools,  but  be  the  means  of  introducing  the  most  improved  imple- 
ments into  the  country,  and  the  institute  was  extremely  fortu- 
nate in  getting  the  right  man  for  the  place,  one  who  liad  been 
with  Fellenberg  at  Hofwyl,  as  an  implement  maker,  and  who 
not  only  answered  expectations,  but  soon  won  a  high  reputation 
for  the  implement  branch  of  the  establishment  by  the  strength 
and  goodness  of  the  work. 

In  1852,  and  each  year  since,  arrangements  were  made  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  a  more  rapid  and  general  spread  of 
improved  agricultural  implements  throughout  the  country 
whereby  master  wheelwrights  and  smiths  were  provided  with 
an  opportunity  l)y  a  stay  of  some  six  or  ten  days  in  the  imple- 
ment manufactory  at  Hohenheim,  of  becoming  familiar  l)y 
observation,  handling,  drawings,  models,  &c.,  with  the  course 
of  business  and  tlie  manner  of  manufacture  there,  and  the 
master  mechanic  took  it  upon   himself  to  give   the  requisite 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  25 

explanations.  Up  to  tliis  time  no  less  than  seventy-seven 
master  smiths  and  fifty-eight  master  wheelwrights  have  availed 
themselves  of  this  opportunity  to  perfect  themselves  in  their 
business. 

But  as  imperfect  and  defective  as  were  the  arrangements  at 
the  outset,  at  Hohenheim,  there  was  one  thing  that  neither  the 
director  nor  the  pupils  were  in  want  of,  and  that  was  an  earnest 
love  for  their  work  and  an  enthusiasm  for  the  high  reputation 
of  the  new  institute.  It  was  not  the  least  of  the  merits  of 
Schwertz  that  he  knew  how  to  infuse  such  an  enthusiasm  into 
all  his  pupils.  Where  such  a  spirit  reigns  great  things  are 
easily  developed  from  small.  Forty-five  years  have  now  passed 
away  and  from  the  weak  seed  then  planted  a  strong  fruit-bear- 
ing tree  has  developed  its  wide-extended  branches.  From  eight 
pupils  of  1818,  the  number  has  increased  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  in  1863  ;  and  from  one  great  professor  the  number  has 
grown  to  twelve. 

Such  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  earlier  history  of  the  institute  at 
Hohenheim.  Let  us  look  for  a  moment  to  its  present  position 
and  prospects. 

The  domain  consists  of  about  825  acres,  not  including  a  vast 
forest  of  over  5,000  acres,  belonging  to  the  government.  The 
government  exercises  a  controlling  influence  in  the  general 
management  of  the  institute,  and  the  reports  and  financial 
standing  of  the  establishment  are  made  to  the  proper  authori- 
ties at  Stuttgart.  But  at  Hohenheim,  the  institute,  as  well  as 
the  farm  with  all  its  branches  and  dependencies,  is  under  the 
immediate  control  of  the  director,  who  has  an  assistant,  or  sec- 
retary, also  a  farm  assistant,  who  acts  also  as  a  tutor  in  the 
institute.  There  is  also  a  treasurer  and  a  book-keeper,  a  libra- 
rian, who  assists  in  the  office,  an  overseer  in  tbe  institute,  a 
house-master  and  a  post-master.  The  director,  at  present  von 
AValz,  is  also  head  teacher  of  agriculture,  and  lectures  upon 
agricultural  practice,  taxation  of  property,  special  plant  cul- 
ture and  agricultural  architecture. 

There  are  nine  established  professors,  as  follows : — 

Dr.  Riecke,  professor  of  mathematics  and  physics. 

Karl  Siemens,  professor  of  agricultural  technology  and  head 
director  of  the  implement  manufactory. 


26  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Dr.  Fleischer,  professor  of  geognosy  and  botany,  and  director 
of  the  botanic  garden. 

Dr.  Niirdlinger,  principal  teacher  of  forestry,  and  steward  of 
the  hunting  grounds  at  Hohenheim. 

Dr.  Emil  Wolff,  professor  of  chemistry,  and  director  of  the 
agricultural  chemical  laboratory. 

Dr.  Ran,  professor  of  agriculture,  who  lectures  upon  agricul- 
ture in  general,  plant  culture,  meadow  management,  vine,  hop 
and  tobacco  culture,  breeding  of  cattle,  sheep  and  smaller  ani- 
mals. 

Dr.  Rueff,  professor  of  veterinary  science,  who  lectures  upon 
zoology,  horse-breeding  and  silk  culture. 

Professor  Fischbach,  second  teacher  of  forestry  and  steward 
of  the  forests  at  Denk.endorf. 

Besides  these,  there  is  a  teacher  of  book-keeping,  another  of 
national  economy  and  the  laws  of  forests,  a  director  of  the  garden 
school,  who  teaches  fruit  and  root  culture,  and  a  head  teacher, 
Mr.  Kik,  manager  of  the  farm  school,  who  gives  instruction  in 
bee  culture.  The  farm  inspector  also  conducts  some  agricul- 
tural exercises  on  the  experimental  field. 

These  professors  are  appointed  by  the  king,  upon  presentation 
to  the  minister  of  the  interior,  made  by  the  general  council  of 
agriculture. 

The  salary  of  the  professors,  like  the  pay  of  scientific  and 
literary  men  generally  in  Germany,  is  very  small,  scarcely  ade- 
quate to  their  support,  even  on  a  very  economical  establishment. 
This  accounts  for  their  prolific  pens.  They  are  compelled  in 
very  many,  no  doubt  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  to  write 
books,  prepare  articles  for  the  scientific  journals,  and  otherwise 
to  eke  out  the  means  of  a  respectable  support.  The  cost  of 
living  is,  in  some  sections,  a  little  less  than  with  us,  to  be  sure, 
but  to  live  equally  well,  the  difference  is  but  small,  so  far  as  I 
could  judge  from  the  cost  of  very  many  articles  which  I  could 
compare. 

The  salary  of  the  director  amounts  to  2,500  florins,  §1,025. 
That  of  three  professors,  each  1,500  florins,  $615.  One  profes- 
sor has  but  -^oSS.  Three  others  have  §'492  each.  Another, 
§^^48.  Two  assistant  teachers,  each  (tfl02.  As  the  professors 
and  their  families  room  in  the  buildings  of  the  chateau,  which 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  27 

are  amply  sufficient  for  the  accommodation  of  all,  and  many 
more,  I  do  not  suppose  they  are  charged  with  rent. 

The  students  of  the  higher  institute  are  admitted,  after  the 
age  of  eighteen,  without  examination,  on  certificate  of  willing- 
ness on  the  part  of  parents  and  of  industry  and  good  conduct 
at  the  schools  hitherto  attended,  and  at  any  time  during  the  year, 
and  are  held  to  no  very  rigid  discipline,  being  required  to  attend 
three  of  the  regular  courses  every  week,  which  they  may  select. 
They  rise  and  go  to  bed  when  they  choose,  and  employ  their 
time  as  they  choose,  and  go  out  from  the  institute  with  an  ex- 
amination. Many  sons  of  wealthy  families  are  no  doubt  attracted 
there  by  the  beauty  of  the  institution  for  an  agreeable  temporary 
residence.  They  have  as  complete  control  of  their  time  and  their 
actions,  within  the  reasonable  limits  of  good  conduct  of  course, 
as  the  students  at  our  law,  medical  and  divinity  schools.  It 
may  not  be  generally  known  that  all  students  in  German  uni- 
versities are  left  or  thrown  upon  their  own  responsibility  to  a 
far  greater  extent  than  the  students  of  any  of  our  colleges. 
Their  whole  early  education  familiarizes  them  with  this  liberty, 
and  it  is  not  probably  so  liable  to  abuse  as  it  would  be  with  us. 
But  it  is  no  less  true  that  real  severe  study  requires  tlie  stimu- 
lus of  emulation,  and  necessity  or  compulsion,  especially  upon 
minds  not  arrived  at  full  maturity. 

The  lectures  begin  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  in  summer 
and  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  winter,  and  end  at  seven  o'clock  in 
the  evening  throughout  the  year.  They  continue  with  only  two 
hours'  intermission  for  dinner  at  noon.  Two  lectures,  for  differ- 
ent sections,  are  often  going  on  at  the  same  time.  It  may  be 
proper  to  remark  that  there  is  a  sort  of  impassable  aristocratic 
barrier  between  the  institute  pupils  and  those  of  tlie  scliool  of 
practical  agriculture.  The  instructors  of  the  institute  alone  bear 
the  title  of  professors,  a  dignity  rather  inaccessible  to  tlie  tutors 
and  teachers  in  the  lower  or  school  of  practice,  although  these 
latter  often  give  courses  before  the  students  of  the  institute.  This 
barrier  falls,  no  doubt,  when  tiiey  separate  at  the  close  of  the 
course  and  go  out  to  take  their  places  in  society,  according  to 
the  capacities  of  each.  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  is  a  fact  that 
the  graduates  of  the  lower  school  are  more  successful  in  secur- 
ing places  as  stewards  and  managers  of  estates  than  those  of  the 
institute,  many  of  whom  have  to  rely  on  such  positions. 


28  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  institute  it  has  sent  out  no 
less  than  2,944,  including  those  in  the  school  of  forestry,  or 
2,322  agriculturists,  and  G22  foresters  ;  while  from  the  school 
of  practice,  since  its  opening,  in  1818,  to  18G1,  inclusive,  the 
number  of  graduates  is  334,  without  including  some  tempo- 
rary students,  a  few  of  whom  are  taken  nearly  every  year. 

The  Otheu  Means  of  Instruction. — Among  the  means  of 
instruction  presented  at  the  institute  may  be  mentioned,  what 
has  already  been  alluded  to,  the  whole  management  of  the  farm, 
with  its  experimental  fields,  the  implement  manufactory,  the 
workshops,  the  forests  and  hunting  parks,  the  nurseries,  both 
native  and  exotic  trees,  the  botanic  garden,  the  library  and  the 
different  collections  and  apparatus  designed  especially  for  the 
purposes  of  instruction. 

The  botanic  garden  was  started  in  1829,  with  an  area  of  about 
ten  acres.  It  was  intended  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of 
instruction  and  ornament  to  the  surroundings  of  the  chateau. 
I  spent  a  good  deal  of  time  in  the  various  parts  of  this  garden. 
It  is  laid  out  on  a  generous  scale,  with  an  agreeable,  park-like 
aspect ;  groups  of  trees,  ornamental  and  useful  shrubs,  parterres 
of  flowers  and  lawns  well  kept.  A  part  of  it  is  devoted  to 
annuals,  where  an  immense  number  of  varieties  of  wheat  and 
other  grains  are  cultivated ;  each  plot  labelled,  so  that  the 
visitor  may  know,  without  a  guide,  what  each  contains.  "^In 
another  part  are  the  perennials,  especially  tliose  of  economical 
value.  A  grass  garden  forms  a  part  by  itself,  where  the  different 
species  of  grass  are  cultivated  in  little  clumps,  each  labelled  with 
its  systematic  and  common  name  ;  while  an  arboretum  of  consid- 
erable extent  is,  at  all  times,  accessible  for  students  and  others. 

The  library  contains  4,000  volumes  on  agriculture  and  forestry 
and  their  auxiliary  sciences. 

The  collections  are  very  extensive  and  valuable,  more  so  than 
at  any  other  institute  of  the  kind  that  I  visited.  Tliey  consist 
of  large  collections  of  soils,  manures,  models  of  implements,  and 
implements  in  full  size  ;  admirable  collections  of  wools,  kept  in 
glass  cases,  among  which  are  complete  historical  collections 
from  the  sheep  kept  on  the  farm  for  many  years  back,  especially 
of  the  most  celebrated  bucks  and  ewes ;  collections  of  woods, 
minerals,  petrifactions,  (kc. ;  collections  of  seeds  of  fruits,  her- 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  29 

bariums,  pathological  and  zoological  collections,  apparatus  used 
in  the  lectures  on  physics,  the  chemical  laboratory,  &c. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  the  institute  embraces  a  very 
wide  range,  and  a  full  detail  would  lead  too  far.  A  general 
outline  may  be  stated,  as  follows  : — 

1.  General  field  and  plant  culture.  This  includes  a  general 
introduction,  the  objects  of  cultivation  and  the  connection  of 
cattle  breeding  with  farm  operations ;  also  instruction  upon 
climates,  soils,  manures,  implements,  working  the  soil,  multipli- 
cation of  plants,  care  of  seeds,  crops,  preservation  of  farm  pro- 
ducts, accompanied  by  demonstrations  in  the  field,  the  collec- 
tions of  models  and  machine  shops. 

2.  Special  plant  culture. 

3.  Meadow  cultivation. 

4.  Wine,  hop  and  tobacco  culture. 

5.  Fruit  culture. 

6.  Vegetable  cultivation. 

7.  Breeding  of  general  farm  stock — embracing  domestic  cattle 
and  their  necessity  for  man,  science  of  feeding  and  nourishment, 
care,  uses,  multiplication,  choice,  &c. 

8.  Horse  breeding,  including  the  structure  and  anatomy  of 
the  horse ;  with  the  assistance  of  a  large  collection  of  fine 
illustrations  of  the  different  breeds,  and  excursions  made  to  the 
various  royal  studs  in  the  kingdom. 

9.  Cattle  breeding — with  demonstrations  in  the  stalls,  collec- 
tions of  models  and  cheese  dairy. 

10.  Sheep  breeding,  including  instruction  in  regard  to  wools, 
demonstrations  in  the  sheep  stalls,  in  the  wool  and  model  col- 
lections, and  in  the  wool  market  at  Kirchheimer. 

11.  Swine  and  poultry  breeding,  accompanied,  also,  by  prac- 
tical demonstrations  in  the  pig-sties  and  collections. 

12.  Silk  culture — including  the  care  and  cultivation  of  mul- 
berries, the  proper  buildings,  the  treatment  of  silk-worms,  &c. 

13.  Bee  culture. 

14.  Practical  agricultural  instruction — embracing,  in  general, 
the  duties  of  steward,  landed  property  in  its  political  and  legal 
relations,  position,  climate,  soil,  farm  buildings,  etc.  ;  capital, 
labor  and,  particularly,  the  organization  and  direction  of  a  farm  ; 
choice  of  objects,  estimation  of  requirements  of  manure,  statics, 
nourishment  of  ])lants,  choice  of  stock,  rotation,  farm  system, 


30  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

division  of  fields,  transition   from  one  couree  of  cropping  to 
another,  <fec. 

15.  Taxation  of  farm  property. 

16.  Farm  book-keeping. 

17.  Agricultural  technology.  This  course  embraces  a  year's 
instruction  upon  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar,  beer  brewing 
and  the  distillery  of  brandy  in  the  winter  term,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  vinegar,  starch,  the  grinding  of  meal,  tile  and  brick 
making,  and  wine  and  cider  making  in  the  summer  term,  with 
the  innumerable  details  connected  with  each. 

The  auxiliary  branches  include — 

(1st.)  Arithmetic  and  algebra. 

(2d.)  Theoretical  geometry. 

(3d.)  Trigonometry. 

(4th.)  Practical  geometry,  which  includes  surveying,  land 
measuring  and  levelling. 

(5th.)  Estimation  of  the  value  of  forest  lands,  beginning 
with  the  cubic  contents  of  timber,  the  growth  of  single  trees, 
whole  forests,  &c. 

(6th.)   Mechanics  and  physics. 

(7th.)  Chemistry,  in  the  winter  term,  general,  in  the  sum- 
mer, agricultural  chemistry,  with  practice  and  experiments  in 
the  laboratory.  The  lectures  on  agricultural  chemistry  treat, 
among  other  things,  upon  the  composition  of  feeding  sub- 
stances, the  theory  of  feeding,  &c. 

(8th.)  Introduction  to  geology,  the  object  being  to  give  the 
student  a  full  knowledge  of  all  those  minerals  alluded  to  in  the 
lectures  on  special  geognosy,  and  which  are  of  more  or  less 
importance  as  elements  in  the  soil,  and  in  organic  bodies. 

(9th.)  Geognosy,  science  of  minerals,  composition,  adliesioU) 
liardness  of  rocks,  their  contents  of  water,  air,  warmth,  &c. 
Structure  of  masses  of  rocks,  groups,  systems,  ttc. 

(10th.)  Introduction  to  botany  and  special  economic  botany, 
in  connection  with  whicli  weekly  excursions  are  made  during 
the  summer,  in  the  neigliborhood  of  ilohenheim,  in  addition  to 
which  are  demonstrations  in  the  botanic  garden  and  the  collec- 
tions. 

(11th.)  Physiology,  anatomy  and  pathology  of  plants — tlicir 
anatomical  composition  ;  elementary  organs — tlie  different  forms 
of  cells  ;   the  compound  organs,  the  structure  of  the  root,  tlie 


# 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  31 

stem,  the  leaves  ;  microscopic  demonstrations — life  of  plants 
in  general,  assimilation,  secretion  ;  chemical  composition  of 
plants — the  elements,  organic  and  inorganic ;  the  external  con- 
ditions of  plant  life — influence  of  heat,  light  and  electricity  on 
plants,  <fec. ;  internal  conditions  of  life.  A  pathological  collec- 
tion and  a  good  microscope  are  constantly  used  in  the  demon- 
strations. 

(r2th.)    General  zoology,  with  explanations  by  skeletons. 

(13th.)  Special  zoology,  with  constant  use  of  the  zoological 
collections,  in  classes,  families,  breeds,  &c. 

(14th.)  Veterinary  science,  including  the  structure  of 
domestic  animals,  with  practical  demonstrations. 

(15th.)     National  economy. 

(16th.)     Laws  relating  to  forests. 

(17th.)  Agricultural  mechanics — building  materials,  foun- 
dations, structures,  &g. 

(18th.)     Drawing  of  plants. 

These  courses  are  so  arrange-d  that  the  pupil  can  go  over  their 
whole  range  in  two  terms,  or  one  year,  if  he  has  had  sufficient 
preparation  at  the  outset  ;  but  generally  it  requires  the  regular 
course  of  two  years  of  the  institute. 

The  course  of  instruction  begins  on  the  first  of  October,  and 
the  first,  or  winter  term,  continues  till  the  tenth  of  March, 
when  there  are  three  weeks'  vacation,  after  which  follows  the 
summer  term  till  the  first  of  September.  An  examination 
takes  place  at  the  end  of  each  year  before  the  royal  commis- 
sion, when  prizes  are  distributed  to  such  as  have  distinguished 
themselves  by  industry,  good  conduct  and  acquirements. 

To  show  how  the  day  is  occupied,  the  following  Plan  of 
Studies  is  posted  about  the  rooms. 


82 


BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


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84  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  Cattle. — It  was  thought  that  no  race  of  cattle,  that  did 
not  unite  the  dilTorent  good  qualities  in  the  highest  degree, 
would  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of  Hohenheim  ;  and  no  race 
prominent  for  one  quality,  as  for  instance,  for  milk,  the  yoke, 
or  beef,  would  answer  the  necessity.  After  a  fair  trial  of  the 
Dutch,  the  English,  the  black  and  white  Bernese,  the  Swytzer, 
the  Montafoner,  the  Allgauers,  the  Hungarians,  the  Triesdorfer, 
the  Ansbacher,  the  lialler  and  the  Limbourger,  it  was  found 
that  the  qualities  most  desired,  were  united  in  the  greatest 
degree  of  perfection  in  the  Simmenthalers.  Since  their  first 
introduction,  in  1835,  they  have  constantly  increased  ;  and  now 
the  whole  herd,  except  one,  of  fi-om  80  to  100  head,  are  either 
pure,  or  nearly  pure  bred  Simmenthalers.  The  Allgauers  are 
admitted  to  be  better  for  milk  ;  but,  taking  color  and  all  other 
characteristics  into  consideration,  the  Simmenthalers  carried 
the  day.  No  experiments  are  now  made  to  test  the  comparative 
merits  of  different  breeds,  either  at  Hohenheim,  or  at  any  other 
agricultural  school  that  I  visited  in  Europe. 

These  cattle  are  all  uniform  in  color,  of  a  yellowish  or  tawny 
brown,  approaching  to  red.  They  have  mostly  been  raised  on 
the  farm,  from  fourteen  cows  and  two  bulls,  which  were  selected 
in  the  Canton  of  Berne,  in  Switzerland,  in  1835  ;  and  a  second 
purchase  of  sixteen  cows  and  two  bulls,  in  1838  ;  and  a  third,  of 
seventeen  cows  in  1844.  The  horn  is  short,  the  skin  yellow, 
soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch,  mostly  good  handlers ;  the  barrel 
large,  the  quarters  well  developed,  back  straight,  chest  full  and 
well  formed.  The  head  is  somewhat  inclined  to  be  coarse  in 
many  of  them,  as  well  as  the  dewlap ;  while  the  shoulders  and 
neck  also  of  the  bulls  are  too  large  and  coarse.  The  males  are 
inferior  to  the  females  in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  fore- 
quarters,  head,  neck  and  shoulders.  They  weigh  from  1,200 
to  1,350  pounds,  some  considerably  exceeding  that.  Prof.  Rau 
informed  nie  that  they  would  average  about  1,300 ;  but  the 
whole  stock  is  weighed  every  year,  and  the  average  weight 
depends  a  little  upon  the  condition  of  the  cows  at  the  time  of 
the  weighing,  the  number  in  calf,  the  quality  of  their  feed  at 
the  time,  and  other  circumstances.  In  1847,  for  instance,  78 
weighed  t)9,G07  pounds.  In  the  spring  of  1851),  104  head 
weighed  88,920  pounds,  an  increase  of  19,213  pounds.  The 
general  average  of  all  the  weighings,  between  1846  and  18G2, 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  35 

gave  1,240  pounds ;  but  the  weight  has  no  doubt  been  increased 
by  the  good  keeping  at  Hohenheim,  and  exceeds  that  of  the 
animal  on  its  native  mountain  pastures.  The  bulls  often  weigh 
as  high  as  1,800  to  2,000  pounds. 

All  the  cattle,  except,  of  course,  the  working  oxen,  are  kept 
in  stall  the  year  round.  The  stall  is  roomy,  high,  light  and 
dry, — 263  feet  long — with  a  roof  of  sloping  boards.  The  stand- 
ing-platform is  stone,  cemented,  with  channels  behind  for 
carrying  off  the  drainage.  The  cows  stand  in  two  rows,  head 
to  head,  and  between,  through  the  whole  length,  there  is  an 
elevated  passage-way,  ten  feet  wide,  for  feeding,  with  troughs 
made  of  oak  plank.  No  fodder  racks  are  used.  The  stable  is 
about  forty  feet  wide.  Tlie  windows  are  large,  with  iron  frames, 
easily  opened  and  shut.  The  doors  are  also  arranged  with  slides, 
to  secure  ventilation.  Just  outside  are  sheds  for  cutting  the 
green  fodder,  as  it  is  brought  up — an  old  man  and  a  stout 
peasant  girl  were  kept  at  work,  in  cutting  vetches  and  clover, 
nearly  all  the  time  I  was  there. 

The  feed  is  green ;  taken  fresh  from  the  field,  from  the  begin- 
ning or  middle  of  May  till  the  end  of  October ;  consisting  of 
rye,  lucerne,  clover,  trefoil,  vetches,  sugar  millet,  turnip  leaves, 
spurry,  <fec.,  alternately.  All  the  food,  green  and  dry,  is  cut  up, 
so  as  to  prevent  any  loss.  The  feeding  value  of  green  food  to 
hay,  is  as  one  to  five.  In  winter  the  feeding  consists  of  hay, 
clover  hay,  or  other  dry  fodder  ;  beet-roots  and  straw ;  malt 
combs  are  occasionally  fed.  Oil-cake  and  crushed  grain  are 
given  now  and  then.  The  feeding  of  raw  potatoes  has  become 
impracticable,  on  account  of  the  rot.  The  winter  fodder  state- 
ment shows  that  100  pounds  of  hay  are  equal,  in  nutritive  value, 
to  275  pounds  beets,  carrots  and  artichokes ;  to  200  pounds  of 
straw,  rape  husks,  potatoes  ;  to  160  pounds  chaff;  to  125  pounds 
beer  malt ;  to  60  pounds  oats ;  to  50  pounds  crushed  grain  and 
oil-cako. 

The  following  table  will  serve  to  show  the  number  of  pounds 
of  food  of  various  kinds,  and  its  equivalent  in  hay,  which  each 
animal  is  accustomed  to  receive  per  day : 


86 


BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 


Length  of  Time. 

POUNDS. 

STOCK. 

1 

§ 
pa 

♦J 

'a 

« 
5 

ll 

44  cows, 
2  bull.s,  . 

3!)  cows,  2  bulls,     . 
37  heifers, 
34  heifers,       . 
34  heifers,       . 
10  calves,*     . 
8  calves,* 

1st  to  17th  Nov., . 
18th  Nov.  to  let  Dec, 
2d  Dec.  to  4th  May,    . 
1st  to  10th  Nov., 
11th  to  17th  Nov., 
18th  Nov.  to  1st  May, 
Ist  to  10th  Nov., . 
11th  Nov.  to  27th  July, 

15 
8 
8 

16 
9 
8 

12 

12 

4 
2 
4 

6 
3 

4 
7 
5 

35 
45 
45 

15 
24 

_ 

4 
4 

li 

2 

2 

=35.22 
=36.93 
=36.68 
=16.00 
=17.45 
=18.22 
=18.00 
=18.00 

6 
6 
6 

5 
5 

4 
4 

•  Three  pounds  Crushed  Qrain. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  for  the  older  stock  about  36 
lbs.  of  hay  or  its  equivalent  are  required  per  day.  It  has  been 
found  that  a  sixtieth  or  1|  per  cent,  of  live  weight  will  support 
the  animal  without  loss,  but  also  without  gain,  and  to  provide 
for  secretions,  as  milk  in  cows,  wool  on  sheep,  it  is  necessary  to 
double  that  ration,  making  it  a  thirtieth  of  the  live  weight  or 
3|^  per  cent.  This  is  greater  than  would  be  required  if  the 
cattle  had  been  raised  and  kept  up  in  condition  from  birth,  as 
is  the  case  in  England,  which  is  no  doubt  the  most  economical 
method.  The  roots  are  cut.  The  oil-cake  was  formerly  softened 
with  water  before  feeding  out,  but  now,  like  the  crushed  grain, 
fed  out  dry  with  a  slight  mixture  of  salt,  of  which  12  lbs.  a  year 
on  an  average,  are  used  per  head.  The  feeding  takes  place 
twice  a  day,  morning  and  evening.  Each  meal  is  divided  into 
several  small  parts,  and  a  new  one  given  only  when  the  last  is 
eaten  up.  The  stock  is  watered  at  a  fountain  outside,  between 
the  regular  meals.  The  fountain  is  a  little  way  off  from  the 
stable,  so  that  they  get  some  exercise  in  going  and  coming.  The 
young  stock  is  turned  daily  into  a  roomy  yard  close  by  the 
stalls.  All  the  stock  is  curried  every  day,  and  kept  clean  and 
neat. 

It  has  been  found  by  careful  observation  that  an  animal 
attains  its  greatest  weight  of  body  and  greatest  yield  of  milk  at 
8  years  ;  i.  e.,  after  the  sixth  calf.  A  cow  just  before  calving 
weighs  150  lbs.  more,  on  an  average,  than  after  calving,  and 
about  200  lbs.  more  than  when  dry.  The  calves  usually  weigh 
80  lbs.  and  88  lbs.  according  to  sex.  The  weight  of  a  calf 
when  dropped  is  from  ,^K  to  .^\  of  the  average  weight  of  the 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT. 


87 


cow.  The  use  of  males  for  breeding  is  commenced  at  a  year 
and  a  half  old,  but  they  are  not  much  used  till  two.  In  100 
calves  94^  per  cent,  are  living  and  5|  per  cent.  dead.  Among 
100  calves,  55^^^  per  cent,  are  males,  and  44^^^  per  cent, 
females.  In  100  parturitions,  4^^^  per  cent,  are  twins. 
A  form  of  cattle  register  is  kept  as  follows : — 


Kame  and 

sire. 

Dam. 

Day  of 
Birth. 

COP0LAT1ON. 

"Weight. 

Bheed. 

Day. 

Bull. 

Day. 

Pounds. 

Remarks. 

The  form  of  pedigree  register  is  as  follows  : — 


=  i 

Copula- 

Kemakks on  the 

Weight  of 

Yield  op 

S   S 

Bbeed. 

0  i 

tion. 

Calf. 

Co-w. 

Milk. 

OS 

a 

& 

t 

^1 

ft  y 

■a 

3 

sS 

ounds  of 
Milk. 

0.  of  Days 
in  Milk. 

s 

o 

c 

(K 

-1 

G 

m 

S5  i?£ 

O" 

^A 

? 

&4 

tH 

e.     1  23 

a 

An  account  is  kept  so  that  the  weight  of  milk  of  each  cow 
and  each  month  is  seen  at  a  glance,  the  yield  of  each  noted  and 
the  yearly  yield  noted.  The  average  annual  yield  per  cow  is 
4,816  pounds.     It  occurs  as  follows : — 


After  the  1st  calf, 
"        2d     " 
"       3d    " 


3,616  lbs. 
4,492    " 
5,048    " 


After  the  4th  calf,     4,852  lbs. 
"       5th    "       5,308    " 
"       6th     "       5,352    " 


After  that  the  yield  continues  the  same  for  some  time,  or  falls 
off.  It  does  not  increase.  The  largest  yield  of  any  one  cow 
bred  at  Hohenheim  was  from  a  cow  which  I  saw  when  there. 
Her  weight  was  about  1,200  pounds.  She  gave  in  one  year 
nine  thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy  pounds,  in  the  year 
after  her  fifth  calf,  at  the  age  of  eight.  The  general  average 
yield  of  milk  is  four  times  tlie  live  weight  of  the  cow  each  year. 


88  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  milking  takes  place  twice  a  day  at  the  time  of  the  morning 
and  evening  feeding.  The  average  time  of  going  dry  is  three 
months  ;  the  number  of  milk  days,  275.  The  milk  is  sold  to  a 
dairyman  and  cheese-maker. 

Young  stock,  not  wanted  on  the  farm,  is  sold  at  public  auction 
twice  a  year,  in  May  and  October.  The  average  price  for  bulls 
from  a  year  to  a  year  and  a  half  old,  is  158.47.  The  highest 
price  for  any  one  animal  was  1172.20. 

The  raising  of  calves  is  artificial  from  birth.  They  are  taken 
from  the  dam  and  fed  from  the  pail.  They  do  exceedingly 
•well ;  the  cow  is  less  disquieted  and  the  trouble  is  less  than  if 
the  calves  suckle  the  cow.  The  latter  is  allowed  some  days 
with  young  cows  after  the  first  calf  till  they  get  used  to  being 
milked.     The  amount  of  food  given  is : — 

1st  week,  daily,  12  pounds  of  milk,  -  pounds  of  oatmeal,  -  pounds  of  fine  hay. 

2d      "         "       16  "  -  "  -  '< 


h 

U  ]^  <( 

"  3  " 

"  6  " 

"  10  " 

"  10  " 

In  the  ninth  week  the  milk  is  first  mixed  with  water  and  a 
little  fine  oatmeal.  The  meal  is  after  that  mixed  with  the 
dry  fodder.  After  three  months  the  milk  is  withheld,  and  then 
the  young  animals  receive  daily,  till  two  and  a  half  years  old, 
from  twenty  to  twenty-two  pounds  of  hay,  or  its  equivalent. 
But  the  calves  never  after  receive,  even  in  summer,  any  but  dry 
food,  till  they  are  nine  months  old.  The  average  feeding  is  so 
divided  that  the  younger  portion  receive  less,  the  older  more, 
till  two  and  a  half  years,  when  they  begin  to  receive  the  regular 
rations  of  the  older  cattle,  including  the  grain  fodder  as  indi- 
cated above.  The  growth  with  this  treatment  is  so  remarkable 
that  it  is  only  a  little  surpassed  by  the  rapidly  maturing 
Shorthorns. 


3d      " 

20 

- 

4th     " 

22 

- 

5th  to  7th 

22 

i 

8th  week, 

24 

i 

9th     " 

20 

1 

10th  " 

16 

2 

11th  " 

12 

2 

12th  " 

8 

2 

13th  " 

4 

3 

SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  39 

The  average  weight  of  heifer  calves  at  3  months  is  233  lbs.     Bulls,  353  lbs. 
»  "  "  6  "      357     "  "     472  " 

"  "  "  1  year  640    "  "      750  " 

"  «  "  2    "      "    1,180    "  "  1,300   " 

The  daily  increase  of  a  heifer  calf  is  1.5  lbs.     Of  a  bull  calf,  1.8  lbs. 

"  "  "  in  the  2d  year  is  1.4.     Of  a  bull,  1.5  lbs. 

Few  animals  are  fattened  except  working  oxen,  and  now  and 
then  a  cow  that  goes  dry.  At  the  commencement  of  winter, 
when  the  work  is  over,  about  twelve  oxen  are  usually  fed  for 
beef.  The  process  never  exceeds  four  months.  The  oxen 
receive  daily,  10  lbs.  of  hay,  6  lbs.  of  straw,  25  lbs.  of  beets,  45 
lbs.  of  beer-malt,  4  lbs.  of  oil-cake  ;  in  all  6Q  lbs.  of  hay  or  its 
equivalent,  and  6  lbs.  of  straw  for  litter,  a  day.  The  average 
time  of  feeding  for  the  last  four  years  was  one  hundred  and 
twenty-three  and  a  half  days.  The  increase  per  head  in  this 
time  was  three  hundred  and  two  and  three-quarters  pounds,  or 
two  and  one-half  pounds  a  day  on  an  average,  live  weight.  For 
each  one  hundred  pounds  of  hay,  or  its  equivalent,  fed  out,  the 
animal  took  on  3.64  pounds  live  weight. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  feed  of 
stock,  the  dry  and  green  forage,  straw,  &c.,  is  cut,  mixed  or 
macerated.  This  is  the  case,  with  very  few  exceptions,  all  over 
Germany. 

The  Sheep. — Hohenheim  undertook  to  improve  the  sheep  of 
the  country  by  breeding  and  furnishing  suitable  bucks.  The 
object  was  a  breed  tolerably  rich  in  wool  and  size  of  body, 
hardihood  and  capacity  for  supporting  themselves  on  mountain 
pastures  in  summer,  and  dry  pastures  and  the  sheepfolds  in 
winter.  These  qualities  it  was  difficult  to  find  in  any  known 
breed,  and  to  get  one  was  the  problem  to  be  solved.  Yery  fine 
woolled  sheep,  and  sheep  eminently  adapted  to  mutton,  were 
the  exceptions,  afld  did  not  sufficiently  unite  all  these  qualities. 
The  characteristic  sheep  of  the  country  is  a  wool-mutton  sheep, 
got  from  a  cross  of  the  Merino  with  the  German  sheep  with  a 
live  weiglit  of  90  to  100  lbs,  and  a  clip  of  3  lbs.  of  No.  2  to  No. 
4  wool,  which  had  the  character  partly  of  a  clotli  and  partly  of 
a  combing  wool. 

The  fat  bucks  of  this  so-called  grade  sheep,  which  exhibited 
different  degrees  of  improvement,  yet  having  attained  such 
similarity  and  fixedness  of  type  as  to  be  designated  abroad  as 


40  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

the  Wiirtemberg  race,  have  created  considerable  demand  in 
trade,  especially  for  France.  The  demand  for  mntton  sheep, 
in  the  last  few  years,  and  the  keeping  of  sheep  for  their  manure, 
has  greatly  increased,  while  the  demand  for  extremely  fine 
cloth  wool  and  carding  wools  has  fallen  off,  partly  on  account 
of  fashion  and  of  the  wool  manufactures,  partly  on  account  of 
a  want  of  docility  and  endurance  of  folding  of  such  sheep.  The 
Electoral  flocks  have  become  less  and  less,  their  places  being 
supplied  by  coarser  and  heavier  fleeced  animals.  The  result  of 
this  change  has  been  the  increased  importance  of  mutton  pro- 
ducing sheep,  and  the  production  of  a  cross  breed  in  Hohenheim 
with  the  older  Merino  basis,  in  the  years  1854  and  1855,  and 
since.  45  native  ewes  in  lamb  by  a  fine  buck  were  bought  and 
24  English  Merino  ewes  put  with  them,  which  came  from  a  cross 
of  an  English  buck  with  long  wool  and  large  Merino  ewes  in 
183,0.  This  new  breed  has  now  grown  up  to  200  ewes.  The 
principal  bucks  used  besides  that  named,  were  one  from  Ram- 
bouillet,  and  a  third  of  Rambouillet  and  English  cross-breed. 

Besides  this  English  Merino  breed,  which  was  kept  up  from 
1822  to  1850,  is  the  so-called  Justinger  breed.  The  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg  effected  a  purchase  in  Segovia  (Spain)  and  in  the 
south  of  France,  in  1786,  which  was  bred  as  the  State  model 
flock  on  the  estate  at  Justinger.  In  1822,  ten  hundred  and 
eighteen  of  them  were  transferred  to  Hohenheim.  In  1829  the 
institute  lost  the  Justinger  pastures,  and  had  to  stall-feed  the 
flock  in  summer.  The  Justingers  had  a  middling  fine  wool  fit 
for  cloths,  and  were  large  and  sheared  heavy  fleeces.  They 
improved  the  flocks  of  the  country.  The  45  ewes  above- 
mentioned  had  come  from  them.  But  not  only  the  new  breed, 
but  the  old  Hohenheim  Merino  flocks  contained  Justinger 
blood.  In  transferring  the  State  breeding  flocks  to  Hohen- 
heim, a  flock  of  the  purest  Electorals  from  the  Saxon  folds, 
consisting  of  83  ewes  and  7  bucks,  was  kept  till  1826.  They 
formed  the  fine  Hohenheim  Electoral,  which  was  improved  by 
two  bucks  and  four  ewes  from  Upper  Silesia  in  1846,  and  had 
grown  up  in  1850  to  130  breeding  ewes. 

The  Electoral  bucks  have  been  used  to  improve  the  Justinger 
ewes  since  1821,  and  thence  are  called  the  Justinger-Elcetorals. 
As  a  result  of  the  cross,  the  wool  became  so  fine  that  in  1850 
the  Justingers   and  Electorals  could  be  put  together.      The 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT. 


41 


number  of  Electoral  ewes  was  thereby  increased  to  224  head 
in  1851,  while  on  account  of  the  heavy  sale  of  wool  they  were 
reduced  to  50  head  in  1862. 

Another  part  of  the  Justinger  breed,  selected  from  rich  and 
long-wooUed  animals,  was  used  for  the  formation  of  a  fine  comb- 
wool  breed  and  was  bred  on  pure  by  itself  from  1830  to  1841. 
A  comb-wool  buck  from  the  flock  of  Count  Schwerin,  with  long, 
slender,  glossy  wool,  was  bought  in  1843 — whence  the  present 
comb-wool  flock  of  200  ewes  proceeded.  They  intend  to  reduce 
this  flock  also,  on  account  of  the  slow  sale  of  the  wool. 

A  third  part  of  the  Justingers,  from  long-woolled  animals, 
was  crossed  with  the  long-woolled  and  mutton  English  Leicester 
bucks.  From  that  cross  came  what  they  call  the  English 
Merinos,  in  1830.  In  the  beginning  they  used  pure  English 
bucks,  and  in  1842,  pure  Leicesters.  The  yield  of  wool  not 
being  satisfactory,  they  put  the  ewes  in  1847  and  1848  to  comb- 
wool  bucks.  In  1854,  this  flock,  which  never  much  exceeded 
20  ewes,  distinguished  by  its  broad  build,  was  mixed  with  the 
newly-founded  cross-breed,  as  already  mentioned.  The  prin- 
ciples of  breeding  adopted  in  the  management  of  this  flock  had 
in  view  the  weight  of  fleece,  and  weight  of  body  first,  with  the 
Electorals  fine  wool,  with  the  comb-wool  breed  quantity  with 
softness  or  pliancy,  and  strength  and  gloss.  All  three  flocks 
are  folded,  and  were  put  together  on  the  1st  of  August,  1862. 


a 

o 

o 

fH 

^ 

M 

g 

■y   ,; 

^ 

=3 

a    S 

X2 

o  3= 

i: 

« 

'f    =5 

&  s 

•a 

3     S 

o 

H 

M 

O 

a 

^ 

H 

1.  Electorals,    .... 

68 

12 

4 

11 

1 

96 

2.  Comb  Wools, 

294 

63 

19 

73 

60 

509 

3.  Grades,         .... 

240 

64 

42 

70 

28 

444 

Totals,       .... 

602 

139 

65 

154 

89 

1,049 

The  lambs  arc  all  numbered  by  notches  and  holes  in  the  ears, 
a  few  days  after  they  are  dropped.  A  register  is  kept.  Males 
are  used  for  breeding  at  a  year  and  a  half  old,  females,  at  two 
and  a  half.  A  buck  usually  serves  not  over  50  and  is  never 
allowed  over  75  ewes. 
6 


42  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Winter  lambing  was  continued  from  1822  to  1848.  Summer 
lambing  was  tried  in  1838  witb  a  part  of  the  flock,  in  order  to 
get  a  greater  yield  of  wool,  the  lambs  coming  in  June  and  July. 
Now,  since  1848,  they  all  come  in  May  and  the  first  half  of 
June.  They  get,  on  an  average,  69  lambs  to  100  ewes.  One 
hundred  Saxonies  had  63,  one  hundred  comb-wools  had  75,  one 
hundred  Jiistingers  had  67,  one  hundred  English  Merinos  had 
72,  one  hundred  Grades  had  101  lambs.  In  summer  lambing 
it  was  found  that  buck  lambs  predominated,  while  in  winter  and 
spring  lambing  the  ewe  lambs  were  more  numerous.  A  pair  of 
twin  lambs  occurs  on  an  average  with  Grade  sheep,  in  every 
nine  births ;  with  English  Merinos  one  in  every  24,  with  comb- 
wool  sheep  one  in  every  26,  Justingers  one  in  every  49,  Elec- 
toral one  in  every  60,  The  average  of  all  is  twin  lambs  in  31 
births. 

It  would  appear  from  this  tliat  the  farther  we  go  from  the 
highest  type  of  fine  wool  the  more  prolific  the  sheep  become. 
The  Holstein  sheep,  at  the  international  fair,  a  long-woolled 
breed  from  the  marshes,  had,  in  some  cases,  five  lambs ;  in 
others,  four ;  in  others,  three  ;  eighteen  lambs  were  dropped 
and  nourished  by  five  dams. 

The  twins  are  most  frequently  of  different  sexes,  but  occa- 
sionally of  the  same,  and  when  of  the  same,  two  males  quite  as 
often  as  two  females.  As  the  lambing  time  approaches,  the 
ewes  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  by  hurdles,  and 
kept  apart  some  days  after.  At  four  weeks  old  the  lambs  are 
separated  part  of  tlie  time  from  the  ewes,  some  hours  at  first, 
then  gradually  for  a  longer  time,  until  they  are  allowed  together 
only  at  mid-day  and  at  night.  Castration  and  cutting  the 
tails  take  place  from  three  to  four  weeks  of  age.  At  four 
months  old  they  are  weaned  entirely  and  put  upon  separate 
pastures.  The  sheds  are  so  arranged  that  the  different  sexes 
and  classes  by  age  can  be  kept  apart.  The  sheds  are  roomy, 
dry,  and  quite  healthy. 

The  feed  in  summer  is  partly  on  natural  pastures,  that  is, 
those  where  the  natural  grasses  grow,  and  partly  on  artificial 
ones,  that  is,  on  clover  stubble.  The  pasturage  lasts  from  the 
fifteenth  of  April  to  the  fifteenth  of  November,  frequently  to  the 
middle  of  December,  or  from  seven  to  eight  months.  The 
sheep  are  driven  out  in  the  morning  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  dried 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  43 

off.  At  mid-day  they  are  driven  under  cover  some  hours ; 
if  the  weather  is  hot  or  bad  they  lie  in  the  sheds  as  they  do  by 
night,  after  the  afternoon  and  evening  pasturing.  The  flocks 
feeding  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  buildings  are  driven  into 
the  stalls  ;   those  on  more  distant  pastures  into  sheep-houses. 

The  winter  feeding  lasts  from  tiie  twentieth  of  November,  on 
an  average,  to  the  fifteenth  of  April.  It  consists  of  hay  and 
straw,  roots  and  shorts.  Bucks  receive  in  addition  some  oats 
when  put  to  service.  The  orts  of  the  fodder  straw  are  used  for 
bedding.     The  distribution  of  the  winter  feed  is  as  follows  : — 

217  Electoral  ewes  and  comb-wool  sheep  receive  daily,  from 
the  2d  of  December  to  the  13th  of  April — 133  days — 14  pounds 
of  hay,  I  pound  of  straw,  1|  pounds  of  roots,  -|  pound  of  coarse 
ground  grain.  In  all  2.82  pounds  of  hay  or  its  equivalent. 
70  yearling  ewes  get  the  same  feeding  from  December  2d  to 
April  6th,  or  126  days.  168  lambs  of  the  same  breed  get  from 
December  2d  to  April  6th,  1^  pounds  of  hay,  1  pound  of  straw, 
^  pound  of  coarse  ground  grain,  equal  to  2}  pounds  of  hay. 
16  bucks  of  these  breeds  get  in  the  same  time  2|-  pounds  of  hay, 
1^  pound  of  straw,  1^  pounds  of  roots,  ^  pound  coarse  crushed 
grain,  or  4.32  pounds  of  hay  or  its  equivalent.  140  cross-bred 
ewes,  from  tlie  2d  December  to  the  13tli  April,  get  2  pounds 
hay,  I  pound  straw,  1|  pounds  roots,  1^1  pounds  grain,  or  3.3^2 
pounds  hay  or  its  equivalent.  52  yearling  ewes,  from  2d 
December  to  6th  April,  get  2^  pounds  hay,  |  pound  straw.  Im- 
pounds roots,  I  pound  grain,  equal  to  3.82  pounds  of  hay.  113 
cross-bred  lambs,  in  the  same  time,  get  each  2  pounds  hay,  1 
pound  straw,  |  pound  grain,  equal  to  3  pounds  hay.  23  bucks, 
in  the  same  time,  get  each  3  pounds  hay,  |  pound  straw,  1^ 
pounds  roots,  J  pound  grain,  equal  to  4.82  pounds  hay. 

The  arrangement  is  as  follows:  In  the  morning  the  sheep 
get  hay,  then  water  is  let  into  round  troughs  in  the  stall.  At 
10  o'clock,  cut  roots  :  at  noon,  hay,  then  drink  again.  In  the 
course  of  tiie  afternoon,  cut  roots,  and  at  evening,  straw. 
Once  a  week  they  get  salt  at  evening,  after  the  feeding,  half  an 
ounce  a  head. 

The  health  of  tlie  flocks  is  remarkable,  diseases  very  rarely 
attacking  them.  The  loss  is  frequently  no  more  than  a  quarter 
of  one  per  cent,  a  year.  The  sheep  are  washed  early  in  June. 
The  shearing  is  done  by  women  on  contract  at  four  kreutzcrs 


44  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

(or  a  trifle  less  than  six  cents,)  apiece.  The  fleece  of  each  sheep 
is  accnrately  weighed,  and  the  weight  entered  in  the  register. 
Then  the  fleeces  are  bound  up  singly,  those  of  the  different 
breeds  being  kept  apart.  On  an  average  of  eight  years,  the 
Electorals  shear  2  lbs.  3J  oz.  The  comb-wools  shear  2  lbs.  lOj 
oz.     The  grades,  3  lbs.  3|  oz. 

The  live  weight  of  bucks  of  the  Electoral  breed  is  120  lbs.  ; 
of  ewes,  76  lbs.  Of  comb-wool  bucks,  135  lbs.  ;  ewes,  84  lbs. 
Of  grades,  160  lbs. ;  ewes,  91  lbs. 

The  oily  gum  in  the  fleeces  of  the  three  breeds  is  easily  solu- 
ble, and  the  washing  makes  the  wool  beautifully  white.  Dust, 
sand  and  dirt  cling  to  the  fleeces  of  these  sheep  and  the  washing, 
therefore,  is  followed  by  a  considerable  loss  of  weight.  An 
experiment  made  to  ascertain  the  average  loss  resulted  as 
follows : — 

The  Electoral  sheep  lost,  on  an  average,  4  lbs.  or  63  per  cent, 
in  washing  on  the  sheep,  and  at  the  manufactory,  12.3  per 
cent.,  making  in  all  75.3  per  cent.,  and  leaving  24.7  per  cent, 
of  thoroughly  cleansed  wool.  The  comb-wool  sheep  lost  2  lbs. 
13  oz.,  or  50  per  cent,  on  the  fleece,  and  at  the  manufactory, 
12.7  per  cent.  In  all  62.7  per  cent.,  leaving  37.3  per  cent,  of 
clean  wool.  The  grades  lost  5  lbs.  14  oz.,  or  66  per  cent,  from 
"v^shing  on  tlie  fleece,  and  9.5  at  the  mill.  In  all  75.5  per  cent, 
leaving  24^  per  ceyt.  of  pure  wool. 

The  Experimental  Field  was  designed,  not  only  as  a  means  of 
instruction  for  the  students,  but  also  as  a  means  of  investigation 
on  the  part  of  the  professors.  For  this  purpose  the  plots  appro- 
priated to  each  experiment,  consist  of  nearly  a  quarter  of  an 
acre  eacli ;  a  size  sufficient  to  give  to  each  a  fair  and  full  trial 
in  management,  manuring,  cost  of  culture,  results,  &c.  The 
fact  that  there  are  ninety-six  of  these  plots,  indicates  that  this 
part  of  the  enterprise  receives  its  due  share  of  attention.  It 
also  offers  the  means  of  raising  a  great  variety  of  seeds,  which 
supply  the  wants  of  the  farm  and  form  an  important  item  in  the 
receipts  of  tlie  institute  ;  while  it  secures  to  tlie  farmers  of  the 
country  a  certain  source,  from  which  they  can  obtain  pure  seed. 
But  the  experiments  on  the  farm  are  not  wholly  confined  to  this 
field.  Among  those  that  have  been  tried,  the  following  may  be 
mentioned  : — 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  45 

1.  Upon  the  transmission  of  caries  in  grain,  and  the  influence 
of  washing,  soaking,  fermentation  of  the  seed  on  the  stock,  as 
well  as  on  the  age  and  change  of  seed. 

2.  Observations  on  the  sensitiveness  of  growing  plants  to  frost. 

3.  On  the  effect  of  large,  middling-sized  and  small  seed  pota- 
toes. 

4.  On  plucking  off  the  blossoms  of  potatoes. 
6.  On  the  exhaustion  of  land  by  rape  culture. 

6.  On  the  exhaustion  of  wheat  in  comparison  with  green 
plants  and  fallow. 

7.  On  the  culture,  year  after  year,  of  beets  on  the  same  land, 
by  constantly  fresh  manuring. 

8.  On  the  continued  culture  of  artichokes,  on  the  same  land, 
with  manuring  every  three  years. 

9.  On  the  effect  of  mowing,  or  not  mowing,  the  late  clover 
stubble  in  autumn. 

10.  Oi>  the  depasturing  of  winter  barley. 

11.  On  the  manuring  of  meadows. 

12.  On  manuring  with  Peruvian,  Baker's  Island  and  fish 
guanos;  rape  meal, bone  meal,  super-phosphate,  Chili  saltpetre, 
salt,  gypsum,  gas  lime,  soda,  peat  ashes,  Liebig's  patent  manure, 
artificial  manures. 

13.  On  the  effect  of  fresh  and  rotted  manure,  the  mixture  of 
various  crops,  and  many  others. 

This  field  was  very  instructive  and  interesting.  The  crops 
upon  it,  when  I  was  there,  were  in  full  growth,  including  a 
large  number  of  varieties  of  wheat. 

Management  of  Manure. — There  are  two  great  manure  pits, 
one  to  receive  the  contributions  from  the  stalls  for  cows  and 
young  stock,  and  the  other  those  from  the  horses,  oxen  and 
fatting  cattle.  The  liquid  manure  is  received  into  cisterns, 
whence  it  can  be  pumped  up  and  thrown  upon  the  manure  heap, 
or  run  down  into  the  basins  in  the  botanic  garden. 

The. manure  is  carried  from  the  stalls  on  wheel-barrows  and 
added  to  the  heap  ;  which  is  carted  off  usually  every  weqk,  so 
as  not  to  ferment  and  lose  its  value.  "When  this  is  impossible, 
owing  to  bad  weather,  or  the  press  of  other  and  more  important 
work  for  the  teams, — as  during  harvesting — the  manure  heap 
is  sprinkled  over,  from  time  to  time,  with  plaster  of  Paris.  It 
never  remains  so  long  as  four  weeks  in  the  bulk,  except  during 


46  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

the  harvest  and  fall  seeding,  and  the  rule  is  to  cart  it  off  regu- 
larly every  week. 

The  manure,  as  it  is  carried  out,  is  immediately  spread,  that 
it  may  not  rot  in  small  heaps,  or  be  washed  and  unevenly  distrib- 
uted. If  it  comes  directly  upon  the  stubble  field,  it  is  ploughed 
under  with  the  stubble  ;  if  upon  ground  already  ploughed,  it 
remains  lying  spread  out  upon  the  surface,  till  the  proper  time 
for  ploughing  comes.  If  the  land  is  frozen,  the  same  is  done  ; 
and  it  lies  till  the  land  is  ready  for  the  plough.  The  same 
course  is  pursued  even  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  ; 
the  manure  is  spread  upon  the  snow,  so  that  it  immediately 
freezes  and  does  not  rot  without  a^covering.  The  whole  man- 
agement is  designed  to  have  the  manure,  when  it  is  possible, 
rot  in  the  soil,  and  not  in  heaps  upon  the  surface.  Fermentatiou 
of  manure  above  the  surface  is  prevented,  as  far  as  it  can  be, 
60  that  the  gaseous  products  may  be  developed  in  the  soil  and 
held  fast  by  it. 

In  the  sheep  pens  the  manure  remains  lying  a  longer  time. 
Under  the  treading  of  the  animals  in  the  close  space,  less  goes 
to  waste  than  in  open  heaps,  yet  here  and  there  where  there  is 
danger  of  this,  gypsum  is  spread  over  the  manure,  and  when- 
ever a  sufficient  store  is  collected,  this  also  is  carted  out. 

In  sunmier,  and  commencing  about  the  20th  of  April,  a  part 
of  the  sheep  are  penfolded  by  means  of  movable  fences,  and  in 
rains  and  great  heats,  they  are  driven  under  sheds  or  into 
stalls,  where  they  are  furnished  with  litter.  The  finer  ewes 
with  their  lambs  are  folded  at  night  in  the  stall  till  weaning 
time,  and  after  the  rowan  harvest,  the  ewes  are  let  upon  the 
inlying  meadows,  but  the  lambs  are  not  turned  upon  them  till 
the  following  year.  The  pen  is  the  best  mode  of  managing  and 
applying  this  manure,  because  nothing  is  lost,  and  the  urine  of 
the  animal,  which  in  the  stall  mostly  escapes  as  ammonia,  is 
saved.  'I'liey  attain  also  with  manuring  by  means  of  the  pen- 
fold  more  tiiun  three  times  as  much  as  by  the  stall  dung  which 
is  produced   by  the  same  number  of  animals  in  the  same  time. 

The  prej)aration  of  compost  is  not  so  extensively  carried  on 
now  as  formerly,  because  the  carting  to  and  fro  costs  too  much. 
The  compost  heap  is  very  conveniently  placed  near  the  build- 
ings. It  is  in  a  circular  basin  hollowed  out  four  to  five  feet 
deep,  to  which  on  two  opposite  sides  there  is  an  entrance  and 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  47 

exit,  with  edges  four  or  five  feet  high,  over  which  all  the 
material  is  thrown,  in  layers  upon  the  bed  of  the  circular  heap. 
In  the  circle  there  is  a  passage-way  left,  where  the  carts  are 
loaded  in  carrying  away  the  compost.  The  whole  is  surrounded 
by  trees,  and  on  the  side  of  the  entrance  there  is  a  stone  ash 
house.  To  this  compost  is  added  all  the  rubbish  from  the 
workshops,  the  barns,  and  of  special  crops,  as  the  stalks  of  seed 
roots,  turnips,  beets,  &c.,  hop  vines,  street  sweepings,  the  con- 
tents of  privies,  &c.,  such  organic  matters,  especially,  as  decay 
too  slowly  to  have  much  value  applied  directly  to  the  field,  or 
which  decay  too  quickly  and  lose  too  much  before  they  are 
wanted,  as  the  night  soil,  or  substances  containing  the  seeds  of 
weeds.  Stable  manure,  which  is  brought  directly  upon  the 
fields  and  mowing  lands,  is  never  added  to  this  compost  heap. 
To  these  materials  only  so  much  loam  is  added  as  is  necessary 
to  hold  the  gaseous  products  of  their  decay,  that  is,  the  com- 
post must  never  smell,  and  it  will  not,  if  it  is  all  covered  over 
with  earth.  More  earth  than  is  necessary  to  effect  this  object 
is  of  no  use,  and  only  makes  a  useless  labor  of  hauling  to  and 
from  the  heap,  and  loading  and  unloading  twice  over.  Urine 
is  an  exception,  as  it  is  sometimes  brought  and  thrown  upon 
the  compost,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  accelerate  the 
decomposition  of  the  materials.  The  heap  is  not  forked  over, 
as  this  is  too  expensive,  and  as  it  lays  in  horizontal  layers  of 
organic  materials  and  eartli,  they  are  cut  down  perpendicularly 
as  they  are  carted  off,  so  that  the  mass  becomes  thoroughly 
mixed  and  uniform. 

Both  the  cisterns  for  liquid  manure  above  alluded  to  are 
from  time  to  time  let  off  into  the  basin  in  the  botanic  garden, 
which  lies  at  some  distance  off  on  a  lower  level,  and  the  liquid 
is  thus  distributed  by  means  of  water,  over  the  grounds,  which 
saves  all  expense  of  cartage.  Some  of  the  urine  is  carried  by 
means  of  the  barrel  on  wheels  into  the  vegetable  garden  and 
the  experimental  field,  for  certain  plants,  as  cabbage,  tobacco, 
(fee,  and  rarely  upon  the  compost  heap. 

The  ashes  from  the  many  stoves  of  the  institute,  amounting 
yearly  from  150  to  200  bushels,  are  spread  u[)Ou  the  meadows 
and  the  poorer  spots  of  lucerne. 

Gypsum  is  not  much  used,  except  to  strew  over  the  manure, 
with  which  it  reaches  the  fields,  since  in  a  series  of  years  but 


48  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

little  influence  has  been  traced,  on  clover  and  lucerne,  tliough 
previous  to  1860  it  had  always  been  more  or  less  used,  and 
where  used  it  neither  appears  in  the  soil  nor  w^as  it  observed  in 
the  greater  yield  of  crops. 

Lime  ashes  from  the  brick-kiln,  all  that  can  be  had,  are 
applied  to  worn-out  soils  with  the  best  results,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  manuring  for  rape  seed.  But  two  to  three 
hundred  bushels  can  be  had. 

Tlie  mud  or  settlings,  in  the  mill  pond,  is  very  rich,  and  is 
taken  out  every  six  or  seven  years,  amounting  to  250  cart- 
loads. The  yard  where  the  young  stock  is  allowed  to  run,  at 
certain  times,  is  supplied  with  rape-stalks,  old  straw  and  some 
similar  substances,  and  the  rakings  from  it  are  put  upon  the 
compost  heap,  and  with  that  upon  the  fields. 

No  manures  are  bought  for  the  farm,  but  they  sometimes 
spend  from  60  to  70  florins,  or  25  to  30  dollars,  a  year  for  horn- 
shavings  and  wool-waste  from  the  manufactories,  for  the  ti:ees 
in  the  nurseries. 

I  might  give  much  more  extended  details  of  the  foregoing 
and  many  other  branches  of  this  institute,  and  its  management 
of  the  great  estate  on  which  it  is  located,  but  what  has  been 
said  will  serve  to  show  with  what  degree  of  system  and  care 
the  whole  establishment  is  carried  on,  and  how  useful  such 
experiments  and  details  here  might  be  made  to  the  farming 
community.  Each  school,  properly  conducted,  would  become 
in  fact  a  great  experimental  station,  the  results  of  which  would 
serve,  in  a  measure,  to  educate  the  whole  community,  as  well  as 
the  students  who  might  have  the  more  direct  advantages  of  it. 

The  number  of  students  in  the  higher  institute  at  the  time  I 
was  there  was  150.  The  ancient  riding-schools,  with  ceilings 
adorned  by  splendid  fresco  paintings  by  some  of  the  first  artists 
of  the  last  century,  are  now  used  as  barns  for  the  storage  of 
grain. 

The  collection  of  implements  at  this  school  is,  I  think,  the 
most  extensive  and  instructive  of  any  I  saw  in  Europe.  The 
collection  of  models  is  also  very  large  and  well  arranged.  The 
students  in  the  lower  school,  or  school  of  practical  farming, 
have  a  lecture  from  5  to  6  in  the  morning,  then  work  from 
7  to  ll.\,  and  from  1  to  6^  or  7.  They  have  another  lecture  or 
study  from  8  to  9  o'clock.     The  time  devoted  to   study  and 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  49 

instruction  is  increased  in  winter  and  during  rainy  days.  They 
are  the  sons  of  peasants  well  off  in  the  world,  having  enough 
to  rent  or  buy  a  farm.  They  enter  for  three  years  and  are  not 
admitted  for  a  less  term. 

The  sheep  are  regarded  as  about  the  most  profitable  branch 
of  the  farm. 

This  institution  is  practically  self-supporting.  It  receives 
ten  thousand  florins  a  year  from  the  government.  That  is 
equivalent  to  a  little  over  |4,000,  but  I  was  told  that  with  a 
hundred  students  it  could  pay  its  way. 

*  WEIHENSTEPHAN. 

The  Agricultural  Institute  of  Weihenstephan  holds  the  first 
rank  in  Bavaria.  It  was  modelled,  apparently,  after  that  at 
Hohenheim.  It  is  situated  at  the  little  old  town  of  Reising, 
some  twenty  miles  from  Munich,  on  what  was  originally,  I 
believe,  a  part  of  the  public  domain  of  Schleissheim,  the  royal 
buildings  of  which  domain  lie  within  six  or  seven  miles  of 
Munich,  and  where  there  is  still  a  school  of  practical  farming 
similar  to  the  Ackerbauschule,  or  peasant  school,  at  Hohen- 
heim. 

The  location  of  the  school  and  farm  of  Weihenstephan  is 
very  fine.  The  immense  buildings  stand  on  a  beautiful  hill, 
overlooking  a  wide  extent  of  country,  and  within  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes'  walk  from  the  railway  station.  I  arrived  there 
from  Ratisbon  on  a  bright  summer  morning,  introduced  myself 
to  the  first  man  I  met,  told  him  my  object  and  learned  at  what 
hours  the  various  lectures  took  place,  attended  two  or  tliree  of 
them  and  became  acquainted  with  the  professors,  visited  and 
examined  the  collections,  the  stables,  the  brewery,  the  farm  and 
experimental  field,  the  sheep,  &c. 

Tlie  estate  lying  in  connection  with  this  institute  comprises, 
I  believe,  about  650  acres,  of  which  there  are  usually  about  80 
in  wheat,  over  40  in  rape  and  root  crops,  about  35  in  oats,  12 
to  15  in  potatoes,  15  to  20  in  rye,  18  to  20  in  barley,  8  to  10  in 
beans,  5  in  hops,  about  130  in  fodder  crops,  such  as  lucerne, 
clover,  vetches,  &c.,  while  about  150  are  in  mowing  fields  and 
so  on.     The  land  is  of  excellent  quality. 

The  stock  consists  of  12  horses,  22  pairs  of  oxen,  59  milch 
cows,  7  young  cattle,  30  swine,  and  570  sheep.     The  cows  are 

7 


50  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

mostly  of  tho  Allgiiuer  and  Miirzthaler  breeds,  wliich  are  con- 
sidered best  for  milk  after  the  Dutch.  The  cross  with  the 
Allgiiuer  and  Swiss,  they  say,  makes  fine  working  oxen. 

The  buildings  form  a  series  of  parallelograms,  enclosing  a 
great  grassy  court,  around  which  are  arranged  the  various 
departments,  as  the  chemical  laboratory,  the  rooms  for  study, 
<fec.  Around  a  second  court  arc  the  cattle  barns,  the  dairy  and 
stables,  the  granary,  the  brewery,  the  plough  manufactory,  *fec. 
There  are,  also,  various  other  establishments,  a  distillei'y,  a 
flour  mill,  &c. 

The  number  of  students  is  about  seventy.  The  course  of 
instruction  does  not  materially  differ  from  that  at  nohenheim. 

During  the  summer  term,  for  instance,  there  were  lectures 
by  the  Director,  on  soils,  their  origin,  the  different  kinds  of  soil, 
weathering,  irrigation,  drainage,  division  and  natural  classifi- 
cation ;  The  comparative  value  of  soils  for  the  production  of 
plants  ;  Circumstances  which  modify  this  value  ;  The  soil  dif- 
fers according  to  the  coarseness  of  its  particles  and  its'  tenac- 
ity ;  Sand,  loam,  clay,  marl  and  humus  ;  Subdivisions  of  soils  ; 
Taxation  of  mowing  lands,  pastures,  gardens,  vineyards,  swale 
lands,  fisheries,  &c.  ;  Double-entry  book-keeping  as  a  check 
upon  farming  operations. 

Dr.  Riederer  lectured  upon  the* following  topics: — 

1.  Introduction  to  agricultural  practice,  idea  and  object  in 
general  and  the  systems  of  Thaer,  Thiinen  and  Liebig. 

2.  The  positive  and  negative  means  of  a  good  farm  manage- 
ment, as  the  judicious  division  of  land,  proper  number  of  labor- 
ers, education  of  the  farmer,  necessary  capital,  &c. 

3.  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  large  and  small  estates. 
Influence  of  a  judicious  regulation  of  the  corn  trade,  at  home 
and  abroad,  on  the  profits  of  farming,  <fec. 

4.  The  most  important  directions  in  regard  to  keeping  ani- 
mals and  the  proper  estimation  of  their  products. 

Text-books  are  used  in  connection  with  the  lectures. 
Professor  Knobloch  lectured  three  hours  a  week  upon — 
1.  Agricultural  Chemistry. — Chemistry  of  fermentation,  de- 
composition, formation  of  humus.  The  cliemical  contents  of 
manure,  excrements  of  birds,  solid  and  liquid  excrements  of  man 
and  animals,  strawy  materials,  disinfection.  The  chemical  princi- 
ples of  the  preparation  of  composts.     Bone  manuring,  phospho- 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  51 

rites,  and  koprolites,  gypsum,  wood  and  peat  ashes.  Manuring 
with  oil-cakes,  ammonia,  and  nitric  acid  salts.  Fish  guano.. 
The  formation  of  soil  through  the  culture  of  agricultural  plants. 
The  chemical  principles  of  fallowing  and  rotation.  Drainage. 
Chemical  analysis  of  soils  and  kinds  of  manure,  the  ashes  of 
plants,  of  spring  and  running  water,  and  of  difFerertt  agricul- 
tural products.  On  Liebig  ;  Chemistry  in  its  application  to 
agriculture  and  physiology,  &c. 

In  connection  with  these  lectures,  the  chemical  laboratory 
was  open  daily  during  the  term,  and  the  students  worked  indus- 
triously in  it,  in  making  analyses  of  soils,  manures  and  ashes, 
milk,  potatoes,  feeding  materials  and  cereals,  sulphuric  acid 
and  phosphoric  acid  determinations,  <fec. 

2.  Agricultural  Technology. — Pour  hours  weekly.  Fermen- 
tative processes  of  the  beer  brewery,  the  brandy  distillery  and 
vinegar  manufactory  in  its  whole  range.  Making  of  butter 
and  cheese,  making  of  starch,  and  the  application  of  the  latter 
to  the  production  of  sago.  Lime  and  brick  burning.  Turf 
cutting. 

Technological  Practice,  four  half-days  a  week  in  the  winter 
term,  and  one  half-day  in  the  summer  terra.  Manufacture  of 
Bavarian  normal  and  strong  beer,  potato,  grain  and  maize 
brandy,  vinegar,  starch,  &c.  Demonstrations  in  the  brandy 
distillery,  the  cheese  dairy,  the  brick-yard,  at  the  lime-kiln,  and 
on  the  turf  or  peat  meadows.  Investigation  of  various  raw 
materials  and  fabrics.  Agricultural  technological  mechanics. 
Excursions  to  farming  estates  in  the  neighborhood. 

Professor  May  gave  lectures  in  the  winter  term,  five  hours 
weekly,  upon — 

1.  The  anatomy  of  the  horse,  the  sheep  and  the  swine,  with 
demonstrations  by  skeletons  and  preparations. 

2.  Physiology  of  domestic  animals,  in  connection  with  the 
feeding  proper  for  them. 

3.  The  races  of  the  larger  farm  animals.  Study  of  the  dif- 
ferent races,  breeds  and  families  of  improved  domestic  animals, 
their  form,  characteristics  and  useful  qualities. 

4.  General  principles  of  the  production  of  animals.  Meth- 
ods and  principles  of  breeding.  Green,  dry,  root,  bulb  and  corn 
fodder.  Wastes  of  the  farm.  Loss  and  injury  from  particular 
feeding  materials.     Comparative  composition  of  different  mate 


62  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

rials,  and  their  nutritive  value.     Preservation,  economy  and 
production  of  fodder. 

Summer  Term,  four  hours  a  week. 

1.  Swine-breeding.  Choice  of  animals.  Pregnancy  and  care 
of  the  litter.  Parturition.  Treatment  of  the  dam  and  pigs. 
Close  confinement.     Keeping  at  pasture.     Fattening. 

2.  Horse-breeding.  Study  of  the  subject  from  an  agricul- 
tural and  a  national  economical  point  of  view.  Choice  of 
draught  horses.  Pairing.  Treatment  of  the  mare  in  foal. 
Handling  of  colts  during  the  first,  second,  third  and  fourth 
years.     Checks  in  the  development. 

3.  Knowledge  of  wool.     Its  normal  and  abnormal  conditions. 

4.  Importance  of  a  knowledge  of  veterinary  science  in  the 
treatment  of  domestic  animals. 

Second  Course.     Winter  Term,  four  hours  a  week. 

1.  On  wool,  (continuation.)  Wool  staple.  The  wool  fleece. 
Evenness  of  wool.     Cloth  and  comb-wools.     Working  of  Wool. 

2.  Sheep-breeding.  Choice  of  animals.  Numbering  and 
classification  of  sheep.  Treatment  of  ewes  in  lamb.  Time  of 
lambing.  Management  of  the  young.  Pasturing  sheep.  Wash- 
ing and  shearing.  Sorting  of  wool.  Treatment  and  sale  of 
wool.  Fattening.  Valuation  of  the  fodder  used  in  sheep 
husbandry. 

3.  Cattle-breeding.  Choice  and  selection  of  animals  for 
breeding.  Deviations  from  the  normal  presentation.  Suckling 
and  artificial  raising  of  calves.    General  management  in  all  cases. 

4.  External  diseases  of  the  larger  useful  farm  animals. 

5.  Shoeing.  Treatment  of  the  ordinary  breaks  and  diseases 
of  the  hoof. 

Summer   Term — Five  Hours  a   Week. 

1.  Cattle  breeding  (continued.)  Stall  and  pasture  treatment. 
Use  of  cattle — milk,  fattening  and  draught.  Valuation  of 
fodder  to  be  used. 

2.  Knowledge  of  the  exterior  of  the  horse. 

3.  Knowledge  of  the  exterior  of  cattle. 

4.  Internal  diseases  of  domestic  animals.  Contagious  diseases 
and  tlieir  origin. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  53 

Practical  exercises  of  judging  correctly  of  animals,  on  the 
part  of  the  students,  also  of  wool ;  the  true  modes  of  breeding 
and  the  diseases  of  stock  are  constantly  enforced. 

Prof.  Lidl  lectures,  in  the  winter  terra,  on — 

1.  Cursory  view  of  the  geognostical  relations  of  Bavaria. 

2.  Agronomy.  Mould  and  subsoil,  humus,  sand,  clay,  lime, 
gravel  and  alluvial  soils.  Local  aspects  and  their  influence  on 
vegetation. 

3.  Agriculture.  Cultivation — working  of  the  soil  by  culti- 
vation, by  different  implements.     Improvement  of  soils. 

4.  Anatomy  and  physiology  of  plants.  Cells  and  vessels  of 
plants.  Difference  in  them.  Contents  of  cells.  Plant-cells  in 
their  various  relations.  Intercellular  tissue.  Nourishment  of 
plants.  Motion  of  the  sap.  Production  by  seeds  and  spores. 
Diseases  of  vegetation. 

5.  Morphology.  Root,  stem  and  leaf  organs,  flowers,  fruits 
and  seeds. 

Summer   Term. 

1.  Special  plant  culture — grain  fodder  and  root-plants. 

2.  Economical  botany.  The  most  important  weeds  and 
poisonous  plants. 

Second  Course —  Winter  Term. 

1.  Fruit  culture. 

2.  Cultivation  of  special  plants,  root,  commercial  and  coloring 
plants. 

Summer   Term. 

1.  Culture  of  special  plants,  grains,  pulse  and  oil  fruits. 
Fodder  plants  and  tubers. 

2.  Wine  growing. 

3.  Continuation  of  lectures  on  botany. 

Two  botanical  excursions  are  made  each  week  in  connection 
with  this  course. 

Prof.  Dolilemann  lectures,  in  the  winter  term,  on — 

1.  Applied  mathematics.  Recapitulation  of  the  most  neces- 
sary principles  of  algebra,  geometry  and  stereometry ;  calcu- 
lation, division  and  alteration  of  surfaces;  calculation  of  the 
cubic  contents  of  different  bodies. 

2.  General  architecture.  Earth  and  foundation  work.  Con- 
struction of  ore  pits.  Restoration  of  licwn  stone  and  brick-wall 
work.     Stone  binding  for  pillars.     Chimney  flues,  &c. 


64  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

3.  Practices  in  drawing.  Drawing  of  situations.  Copying 
and  sketching  of  simple  agricultural  buildings  and  parts  of 
buildings.     Drawing  of  agricultural  implements  and  machines. 

Summer   Term. 

4.  Contintiation  of  general  architecture.  Construction  of 
different  kinds  of  vaults  ;  ornamental  works;  carpenter's  work  ; 
joiner's  and  locksmith's  work. 

5.  Surveying,  with  exercises  in  the  field.  Explanation  of 
the  most  useful  instruments  for  length  and  angle  measuring. 
Solution  of  different  problems  of  practical  geometry,  on  the  field 
and  in  practice. 

Second  Course — Winter  Term. 

1.  Agricultural  Architecture. — Laying  out  and  construction 
of  houses  and  stables.  Buildings  for  the  preservation  of  agri- 
cultural crops,  <fec. 

2.  l\Ieadow  Management,  with  practical  exercises. — Theory 
and  use  of  different  levelling  instruments.  Water  measuring. 
Improvements  of  fields  in  general.  Drainage.  Irrigation. 
Practice  in  levelling  and  water  measuring. 

Prof.  Meister  lectured,  in  the  winter  term,  three  hours  a 
week,  on  pliysical  geography,  the  atmosphere  and  climatology. 
The  barometer,  thermometer,  hygrometer,  and  psycorometer. 
Effect  of  clearing  off  of  forests.  Relations  of  temperature  to 
the  atmosphere  and  the  earth,  and  the  consequent  distribution 
of  plants.  Peculiarities  of  land  and  sea  climate,  and  their 
causes.  Winds.  Warmth  and  moisture.  Amount  of  rain, 
dew,  number  of  rainy  days,  storms,  fall  of  hail,  and  their  dis- 
tribution over  the  year,  and  the  consequent  physical  charac- 
teristics of  the  soil.  Explanation  of  the  century  calendar,  and 
of  the  so-called  rules  for  determining  the  weather.  Tempera- 
ture of  the  soil.  Observations  at  different  depths.  Baromet- 
rical and  tliermometrical  measurement  of  bights.  Construc- 
tion of  sun-dials. 

Judge  Schleisinger  lectured  in  the  second  course  twice  a 
week,  in  both  terms,  on  the  general  German  agricultural  law 
in  regard  to  the  more  important  private  rights  and  later  laws  in 
rco;ard  to  cultivation. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  55 

This  course  was  comprehensive,  embracing  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  rights,  persons  and  things,  and  the  laws  affecting 
property,  real  and  personal. 

The  royal  master  of  forests,  Bierdimpfel,  lectured  in  the 
winter  term  on  the  introduction  to  the  management  of  forests, 
the  structure  of  woods,  plants,  and  their  relation  to  the  air, 
climate  and  soil,  and  on  the  definition  of  the  technical  forest 
expressions. 

Summer  Term. 

On  forest  cultivation,  protection  of  forests.  These  courses 
were  illustrated  by  excursions  into  the  neighboring  forests 
belonging  to  the  government. 

In  addition  to  the  short  and  frequent  botanical  and  other 
excursions  in  the  neighborhood,  long  excursions  are  made,  from 
time  to  time,  to  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the  students 
being  accompanied  on  them  by  one  or  more  professors.  Special 
subjects  are  assigned  to  some  one  or  more  of  the  class  on  which 
to  write  out  a  detailed  report.  As  an  example,  the  last  great 
excursion  which  took  place  previous  to  my  visit  was  made  to 
Northern  Bavaria,  to  Niirnberg,  and  so  round  to  Augsbui'g,  to 
visit  the  wool  market  in  that  city.  In  the  former  city,  there 
was,  at  that  time,  a  great  meeting  of  Bavarian  farmers  for  the 
discussion  of  agricultural  topics  ;  an  agricultural  convention,  in 
other  words.  That  was  taken  into  the  trip.  That  part  of  the 
kingdom,  as  well  as  Franconia,  througli  which  the  direction 
lay,  is  largely  devoted  to  the  culture  of  hops.  Now  two  of  the 
students  were  appointed  to  write  out  an  account  of  the  journey 
in  general ;  three  to  write  on  the  culture  of  the  hop  ;  two  on 
fruit  culture,  as  seen  in  the  excursion;  another  on  irrigation; 
another  on  garlic-land  ;  another  on  the  art  of  manuring ;  four 
others  on  cattle ;  two  others  on  the  visit  to  Lichtenhof  Agricul- 
tural School ;  another  on  bees  ;  two  otliers  on  the  wool  market, 
&c.  A  full  report  of  the  excursion  is  thus  made,  mostly 
written  by  the  students  themselves,  and  printed  in  connection 
with  the  annual  report  of  the  school. 

Tlie  arrangement  of  the  hours  for  the  lectures  at  this  school, 
is  as  follows : — 


56 


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57 


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58  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Tho  nurseries  on  the  farm  are  extensive  and  the  sales  from 
them  profitable  ;  but  probably  the  brewery  is  the  most  profitable 
branch  of  the  establishment.  Here  are  used  more  than  ten  thou- 
sand bushels  of  malt  a  year.  In  the  year  ending  with  July  1st, 
18G3,  it  used  3,GG8  Bavarian  scheffel,  or  about  eleven  thousand 
bushels.  In  the  same  year  over  a  thousand  bushels  of  potatoes 
were  used  in  tho  distillery.  There  were  sold  from  the  nursery, 
in  the  same  time,  8,520  trees. 

Just  before  I  was  there  a  terribly  destructive  hail-storm  had 
occurred,  and  I  never  saw  such  magnificent  fields  of  wheat  and 
other  grain  so  completely  riddled  and  ruined.  It  was  painful 
to  look  upon.  It  had  given  promise  of  an  extraordinary  yield 
up  to  the  time  of  the  hail,  but  it  was  very  nearly  a  dead  loss 
when  I  saw  it.  A  committee  o£  appraisers  from  the  insurance 
company  for  crops  was  on  to  estimate  the  damages.  Tiie  wide- 
spread system  of  insurance,  of  which  the  institute  had  fortu- 
nately availed  itself,  saved  it  ^rom  very  great  loss,  which 
otherwise  would  have  fallen  very  heavily  upon  it. 

I  was  indebted  to  Professors  May  and  Dohlemann  for  many 
kind  attentions.  The  director  was  much  occupied  with  the 
people  wiio  were  to  estimate  the  damage  of  the  storm. 

I  should  add  that  much  instruction  is  given  in  the  field  and 
the  nurseries,  in  the  barn  and  other  parts  of  the  establishment, 
by  practical  demonstrations.  There  is  a  reading-room  and  a 
library  ;  there  are  extensive  collections  and  other  appliances. 

SCHLEISSHEIM. 

This  is  now  a  school  of  practical  farming  corresponding  to 
the  Ackerbanschule  at  Hohenheim,  that  is,  the  pupils  are  the 
sons  of  peasants  mostly,  and  they  enter  the  school  to  work  a 
considerable  part  of  the  time.  The  number  of  students  at  the 
time  of  my  visit  was  thirty-four. 

This  school  was  founded  in  1822  as  a  higlier  agricultural 
institute  like  Hohenheim,  but  the  lands  at  Wcihenstcphan 
being  well  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  a  model  farm,  the  higher 
department  was  removed  to  that  estate  some  years  ago,  leaving 
Schleissheim,  and  this  latter  has  since  remained  as  a  scliool  of 
practice.  Tlie  estate  consists  of  about  six  thousand  five  hun- 
dred acres,  and  like  many  other  establishments  of  the  kind,  it 
possesses  a  fine  old  royal  residence  or  chateau,  tlic  whole  lying 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  59 

in  an  immense,  but  not  very  fertile  valley.  I  have  seen  it 
intimated  that  the  lands  were  so  decidedly  inferior  and  unpro- 
ductive that  the  intention  of  the  government  in  giving  it  over 
to  the  school  to  be  managed  by  scientific  men  was  to  put  the 
value  of  scientific  principles  in  agriculture  to  the  severest  pos- 
sible test.  I  believe,  if  such  was  the  case,  that  there  has  been 
little  reason  to  exult  in  the  triumphs  gained  over  such  power- 
ful natural  obstacles  as  a  poor  soil  and  an  ungenial  climate,  and 
I  think  it  may  be  taken  to  be  as  great  a  mistake  to  select  land 
for  a  model  farm,  or  an  agricultural  college  farm,  that  is  much 
below  the  average  of  natural  fertility,  as  it  would  be  to  select 
one  very  mucli  above  it.  In  the  first  case  even  scientific  man- 
agement can  hardly  be  charged  with  the  responsibility  of  a 
failure  to  produce  high  crops*  and  in  tlie  latter,  it  would  not 
get  the  credit  of  whatever  it  did  produce.  Neither  would  be  a 
fair  test  of  the  skill  and  science  applied  to  it. 

The  character  of  the  soil  led  to  the  early  adoption  of  a  twenty 
years  rotation,  in  which  wheat  came  in  but  once,  oats  five 
times,  rye  and  barley  one  year  each,  grass  occupying  six  years, 
and  one  year  being  given  over  to  an  idle  fallow. 

The  buildings  are  old  and  immense  in  extent,  arranged  in 
the  form  of  parallelograms  with  broad  open  courts  or  yards 
between.  Tlie  whole  has  an  air  of  majestic  desolation.  I  do 
not  think  palaces  especially  well  adapted  for  the  purposes  of 
agricultural  schools.  The  endless  stables  were  partly  occupied 
by  horses  belonging  to  the  Bavarian  cavalry. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  more  practical  than  theoretical, 
that  is,  of  the  time  devoted  to  study  and  training  two-thirds  is 
given  to  practical  work  and  one-third  to  theoretical. 

The  theoretical  instruction,  which  comes  mostly  in  winter 
and  on  rainy  days  in  summer,  when  it  becomes  impracticable 
to  work  out-doors,  embraces — 

1.  Religion.  A  brief  survey  of  the  history  of  religion  and 
biblical  history. 

2.  Elementary  studies,  arithmetic,  orthography.  In  arith- 
metic, the  fundamental  rules  and  fractions,  exercises  in 
reducing  common  currencies,  weights  and  measures,  and 
measurements  of  space.  It  is  especially  mathematics  applied 
to  agriculture.     As  large  a  proportion  as  possible  is  mental. 


60  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

About  an  hour  a  week  is  devoted  to  orthography,  to  teach 
correct  writing  and  language,  and  to  develop  facility  in  writing. 
It  includes  examples  of  receipts,  bills,  notices,  &c. 

3.  Agriculture.  On  climate,  atmosphere,  knowledge  and 
estimation  of  kinds  of  soil  and  their  cultivation  or  working. 
On  machines  and  implements,  their  manufacture  and  repair,  the 
parts  of  which  they  are  composed  and  their  use,  the  handling 
and  management  of  sowing,  threshing  and  cutting  machines, 
to  guard  against  accidents.  On  the  formation  of  manure 
heaps  and  the  manufacture  of  manure,  the  application  of 
different  sorts  of  manure.  On  the  knowledge  of  seeds,  and  the 
different  methods  of  sowing  and  planting.  The  treatment  of 
plants  during  the  period  of  growth.  The  reduction  of  different 
feeding  substances  to  tlie  hay  vahie.  Estimation  of  the  neces- 
sary requirements  of  manure.  On  the  various  methods  of 
harvesting,  threshing,  preservation  and  drying.  On  the  valua- 
tion of  fruits.  On  the  arrangement  and  keeping  of  simple  farm 
registers.     Plan  and  model  drawing  from  measurement. 

Technical  Employments. — On  milk  and  the  products  of 
milk.  On  the  erection  ^nd  management  of  brandy  distilleries, 
and  the  suitable  materials  to  use. 

Culture  of  Mowing  Lands. — Preliminary  instruction.  1. 
Levelling  by  the  application  of  the  level  and  other  instruments. 
2.  Measuring  of  level  surfaces,  lines,  angles,  and  figures  ;  tri- 
angles, quadrangles,  right  angles,  the  circle,  practical  exercises 
in  these  operations.  3.  Laying  out  trenches  and  dams  for 
water  or  irrigated  meadows,  calculation  of  bodies  of  water,  and 
the  requirements  of  water  for  irrigated  meadows.  4.  Tools  for 
field  culture. 

The  practical  management  of  meadows.  Study  of  meadow 
or  field  plants.  Requirements  of  seed  and  time  of  sowing. 
Seed  raising.  Manuring  mowings  with  barn  and  compost 
manures,  with  liquid  and  artificial  manures ;  the  hay  harvest 
and  its  yield.  Preparation  of  brown  hay  ;  care  and  improve- 
ment of  meadows  other  than  irrigation. 

Drainage. — When  and  how  to  be  applied.  Tiie  work  pre- 
paratory to  draining. 

Cattle  Breeding. — Application  of  anatomy  to  horse,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  swine  breeding.  The  various  breeds  and  their 
characteristics.     Explanation  of  particular  methods  of  improv- 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  61 

ing  the  breeds  of  cattle,  through  the  introduction  of  foreign 
males,  and  through  in  and  in  breeding,  <fec. 

1.  Explanation  of  characteristics  according  to  the  kind  of  use 
required,  feeding  for  beef,  milk  and  draught. 

2.  Choice  of  animals  for  breeding,  according  to  age,  use, 
special  points, 

3.  Treatment  of  the  breeding  animal, — feeding  and  care. 

4.  Parturition.     Treatment  immediately  after. 

5.  Management  of  the  calf.  Methods  of  raising.  Quantity 
and  quality  of  milk  for  its  nourishment. 

6.  Feeding,  management  and  care  of  the  young  animal  up 
to  the  period  of  use. 

7.  Tlie  same  of  the  full-grown  animal.  Quantity  and  quality 
of  food  for  milking,  fattening,  and  working  animals.  Housing 
of  sheep,  product  of  wool,  and  the  cleansing  of  it. 

8.  Adaptation  to  work. 

9.  Purchase  and  sale  of  animals,  especially  the  horse. 

The  students  are  instructed  in  veterinary  manipulations,  and 
so  far  as  possible  applied  in  practice.  Bleeding  at  several  points 
in  different  animals.  Treatment  of  wounds,  &c.  Shoeing  of 
horses  and  oxen. 

The  proper  management  of  forests,  in  all  its  branches,  also 
forms  a  part  of  the  instruction,  as  well  as  that  of  fruit  trees. 

Excursions  are  also  made  to  neighboring  estates  for  the  pur- 
poses of  observation,  the  results  of  which  are  written  out  by  the 
pupils.  Money  is  sometimes  appropriated  by  the  government 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  long  excursions. 

Experiments  are  conducted  in  the  making  of  implements,  and 
the  application  of  manures,  and  the  cultivation  of  plants. 

There  is  a  collection  of  models,  a  herbarium,  a  library,  and 
tools,  and  workshops  for  repairing  the  smaller  agricultural  imple- 
ments, and  the  preparation  of  models.  The  students  are  held 
to  a  pretty  strict  line  of  conduct ;  neatness,  order,  and  industry 
are  inculcated  and  required.  An  examination  takes  place  at 
the  close  of  the  course,  and  prizes  awarded  according  to  merit. 

The  number  of  cows  kept  is  ninety  ;  the  number  of  yokes  of 
oxen  thirty-six.  They  make  cheese  and  butter.  Tlie  age  of 
the  students  varies  from  sixteen  to  twenty.  The  tuition,  board, 
tfec,  amounts  to  about  80  florins,  or  about  33  dollars.     Each 


62  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

student  costs  the  government  about  125  florins,  but  the  balance 
is  made  up  from  the  public  treasury. 

The  young  men  are  certainly  not  liable  to  acquire  luxurious 
habits  here.  I  visited  them,  by  invitation  of  Professor  Anselm, 
teacher  of  agriculture,  while  they  were  at  supper,  and  had 
various  opportunities  for  conversation  with  several  of  them. 
Their  faro  appeared  to  be  what,  in  our  reformatory  and  correc- 
tional institutions,  would  be  called  "  very  hard,"  and  yet  they 
seemed  to  be  quite  contented  and  happy. 

I  should  think  tlie  institution  well  calculated  to  send  out  a 
hardy,  frugal,  intelligent,  industrious  class  of  young  men,  who 
might  testify  with  regard  to  their  training  as  Socrates  did  with 
regard  to  Xantippe,  "  being  firmly  convinced  that  in  case  I 
should  be  able  to  endure  her,  I  should  be  able  to  endure  all 
others." 

There  is  nothing  imposing  in  the  buildings  or  their  arrange- 
ment. They  are  substantially  built  of  stone,  in  low,  long 
ranges  surrounding  a  large  yard  or  open  space.  There  is  a. 
blacksmith's  and  a  wheelwright's  shop  in  a  part  of  the  range, 
and  many  agricultural  implements  are  turned  out  here  by  the 
slow  processes  of  hand  labor,  some  of  them  excellent,  but  all 
rather  more  remarkable  for  strength  than  elegance. 

Brown  Hay. — Tliey  prepare  here,  and  in  many  other  parts 
of  Germany,  what  is  called  brown-hay.  Wlien  the  grass  is 
partially  wilted,  it  is  collected  and  spread  in  layers,  and  firmly 
trodden  down.  It  is  dried  by  the  heat  which  is  generated  in 
the  mow.  If  the  wilted  grass  is  to  be  thus  made  into  hay,  it 
must  be  taken  when  neither  too  juicy  nor  too  dry.  Leaves, 
heads,  and  blossoms  must  remain  firmly  on  the  stalk. 

In  good  hay  weather,  the  grass  may  be  cut  in  the  morning, 
and  after  being  wilted  and  turned,  and  after  lying  six  or  seven 
hours,  carted  in  and  trodden  dbwn.  The  mow  or  stack  may  be 
from  ten  to  twenty-five  feet  high.  If  not  high  enough,  the 
grass  does  not  generate  sufficient  heat,  and  moulds  and  injures. 
But  if  the  stack  is  too  high,  the  weight  too  great,  the  hay  may 
become  black  and  mildewed,  because  the  warmth  becoming  too 
great,  docs  not  find  its  way  off  sufficiently  fast.  If  the  stack 
is  put  up  outside  the  barn,  under  a  straw-thatched  roof  resting 
on  poles,  they  round  it  up  very  much  in  the  sliape  of  our 
stacks,  not  less  than  ten  feet  in  diameter. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  63 

To  preserve  the  hay,  the  treading  must  be  carefully  done,  so 
as  to  get  it  as  firm  as  possible,  and  to  have  it  all  trodden  down 
uniformly.  The  firmer  it  is  the  better,  and  this  is  regarded  as 
of  the  first  importance,  since  it  heats  all  the  more,  and  the 
moisture  is  more  completely  driven  ofi",  till  it  soon  becomes 
quite  dry. 

On  the  top  layer  of  hay,  from  six  to  eight  inches  of  straw  is 
spread,  that  no  mould  may  attack  the  hay  on  the  top,  and  that 
the  evaporating  moisture  passes  into  the  straw.  If  the  work  is 
well  done  in  building  the  stack,  the  hand  cannot  be  pressed 
into  the  sides.  Within  a  few  days,  the  heat  is  so  much  devel- 
oped that  in  thrusting  in  the  hand  it  is  very  perceptible. 

After  five  or  six  weeks,  the  heat  is  entirely  gone,  and  the 
hay  is  very  fragrant,  and  ready  for  feeding  out.  It  is  of  a 
brown  color  when  so  treated,  and  hence  called  brown  hay.  In 
using,  it  is  cut  down  perpendicularly  with  a  knife,  so  that  it 
comes  off  in  vertical  layers.  It  is  a  perfectly  healthy  and 
sound  fodder,  and  is  eaten  greedily  by  stock. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  of  curing  hay  are — 

1st.  That  even  in  rather  bad  weather,  the  haying  is  quickly 
over. 

2d.  That  the  hay  is  more  nutritious  than  that  cured  in  the 
usual  way.  It  is  estimated  as  fifteen  per  cent,  better.  The 
reason  of  this  is  that  with  the  wilted  grass  all  the  blossoms  and 
flowers  of  the  meadow  grasses  and  the  finer  leaves  are  secured, 
which  in  working  over  in  dried  hay  are,  to  a  great  extent,  lost. 

3d.  That  much  less  space  is  required  to  preserve  it,  because 
it  is  trodden  so  solid.  For  these  reasons,  this  mode  of  curing 
is  adopted  in  many  sections.  In  this  method  of  drying,  where 
the  amount  of  fodder  is  short,  straw  may  be  placed  under  the 
stack,  in  order  to  improve  the  straw  by  means  of  the  heating 
whereby  it  becomes  more  soft  and  tender,  and  is  relished  much 
better  by  stock.  If  bad  weather  is  feared,  the  grass  may  be 
got  in  much  less  wilted,  and  thus  preserved  by  the  mixture 
with  straw.  The  greater  moisture  present  in  the  grass  is 
divided  uniformly  with  the  dry  straw. 

Bad,  or  what  is  called  sour  hay,  if  made  into  brown  hay,  is 
much  more  palatable  to  cattle,  and  all  the  more*if  a  little  salt 
is  strewn  over  the  layers. 


64  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Grass  usually  comes  into  blossom  there,  as  with  us,  in  the 
latter  part  of  June  or  by  the  first  of  July,  and  that  is  regarded 
as  the  most  suitable  time  for  cutting  it. 

LICHTENHOP. 

This  institute  is  about  a  mile  from  Niirnberg  towards  the 
south.  It  was  founded  in  1832  by  Dr.  Weidenkeller.  The 
farm,  originally  composed  of  sand  and  gravel,  almost  barren, 
was  gradually  changed  into  a  good  soil,  now  apparently  fertile 
and  productive,  by  the  students. 

The  stately  buildings  of  the  institute  stand  at  the  right  of  the 
entrance,  and  on  the  left  the  botanic  garden.  The  buildings 
are  in  a  modern  style,  contrasting  strangely  with  the  antique 
structures  in  the  neighborhood.  The  dwelling  of  the  inspector 
is  within  the  college  enclosure,  as  also  that  of  Mrs.  Weidenkel- 
ler, and  just  beyond,  the  dormitories  for  eighty  students,  the 
lecture  rooms,  the  laboratory,  a  spacious  eating  saloon,  which 
serves  also  as  a  work  room,  a  library  and  wash  room. 

The  botanical  garden  contains  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  agricul- 
tural plants,  arranged  in  the  Linnaean  order,  besides  many  of  the 
more  common  forest  trees.  The  garden  of  the  institute  for  the 
growth  of  vegetables  and  fruits  also  joins  the  botanical  garden. 
Among  the  fruit  trees  stands  the  monument  to  Dr.  Weiden- 
keller, the  founder.  A  little  way  beyond  lies  the  experimental 
field.  The  improved  grounds  near  by  contain  a  good  nursery 
of  trees.  In  a  little  grove,  on  a  knoll,  a  monument  is  erected 
to  His  Majesty,  King  Max.  A  broad  space  is  devoted  to  orna- 
mental plants  and  farm  crops.  The  experimental  field  is  about 
two  acres  in  extent.  There  is  also  a  hop  garden  on  a  piece  of 
reclaimed  swamp.  This  piece  was  improved  by  the  pupils 
without  much  cost. 

Near  the  main  building  stands  a  second,  w^hich  contains  the 
collections.  They  consist  of  skeletons  and  anatomical  prepara- 
tions, a  crocodile,  birds,  domestic  game  and  some  malformations, 
several  models  of  systems  of  irrigation,  collections  of  insects, 
minerals,  &c. 

The  stocks  of  bees  were  presented  by  Dzierzon,  and  therefore 
of  special  interest.  The  mode  of  operation  is  easily  seen  from 
the  arrangement  of  the  hives. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  65 

The  farm  buildings  consist  of  cow  and  horse  stalls,  shed  and 
coach  house.  There  were  about  thirty  cows,  consisting  of 
Allgauers  and  Simmenthalers,  a  few  Ansbachers  and  EUingers. 
The  roof  of  the  cow-house  is  built  of  wood,  the  sides  of  stone. 

The  instruction  at  this  institute  is  not  strictly  agricultural. 
Much  of  it,  in  fact,  has  no  more  bearing  on  agriculture  than 
on  any  other  calling.  Religion,  tlie  German  language,  geog- 
raphy, arithmetic,  zoology  and  drawing  are  prescribed  studies 
in  the  first  year.  Agriculture  and  practical  agricultural  exer- 
cises come  in  for  a  share  of  attention,  but  they  don't  seem  to  be 
especially  prominent  in  the  programme. 

The  second  year  is  a  continuation  of  the  first,  with  a  little 
botany,  geometry,  mineralogy  and  history  added,  while  in  the 
third  year,  agricultural  chemistry,  farm  accounts,  rural  archi- 
tecture, machinery,  the  anatomy  and  physiologj^ of  animals,  vet- 
erinary, medicine,  drawing,  riding,  fencing  and  other  practical 
exercises  come  in  and  add  variety. 

This  institute  ranks  as  intermediate  in  the  list  of  Bavarian 
agricultural  schools.  It  has  the  advantage  of  close  proximity 
to  the  market  of  the  curious  old  city  of  Niirnberg,  and  is,  I 
should  think,  in  a  tolerably  flourishing  condition.  Niirnberg  is 
in  Middle  Franconia,  somewhat  over  a  hundred  miles  north  of 
Munich. 

INSTITUTE   AT   GRIGNON,  IN   FRANCE. 

I  visited  this  celebrated  school  in  company  with  Governor 
Wright,  of  Indiana.  It  was  a  beautiful  day  in  August,  and  the 
excursion  was,  in  many  respects,  highly  interesting. 

The  improvement  of  the  soil  of  the  country,  and  a  cheap 
production  by  means  of  this  improvement ;  the  advantageous 
employment  in  agriculture  of  the  capital  of  the  country ;  the 
continued  occupation  and  elevation  of  the  rural  population  of 
France,  and  the  increase  of  that  population,  were  the  principles 
wliich  led  to  the  foundation  of  this  establishment,  in  1829.  The 
great  precept  of  the  first  director,  M.  A.  Bella,  was  that  the 
improvement  of  the  soil  is  the  most  fruitful  source  of  tlie  cheap 
production  of  the  necessaries  of  life. 

King  Charles  X.  bought  the  domain  at  Grlgnon,  which  was 
selected  by  M.  Bella,  and  granted   it,  for  forty  years,  on  the 
following  conditions  : — 
9 


66  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

1.  To  apply  a  perfected  and  instructive  system  of  agriculture 
on  the  domain. 

2.  To  organize  a  scientific  and  practical  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture. 

3.  To  make  all  bcal  and  needed  repairs. 

4.  To  make  permanent  improvements  to  the  value  of 
300,000  francs,  such  as  buildings,  roads,  canals,  clearing  from 
rocks,  plantations,  «fec. 

5.  To  improve  the  lands  in  addition  to  the  sum  named. 
d.  To  renovate  the  forests  on  the  place. 

It  was  started  as  a  sort  of  joint  stock  company  on  these  con- 
ditions, which  were  considered  as  very  reasonable. 

In  other  words,  the  estate  being  made  over  by  the  government 
on  an  appraised  or  fixed  valuation,  the  subscribers  were  to  furnish 
the  capital  to  ^tock  and  carry  on  the  farm,  and  to  make  per- 
manent improvements  in  buildings,  roads,  drainage,  &,c.,  to 
the  amount  of  7,500  francs,  or  <i)l,600,  a  year,  in  lieu  of  rent. 
That  amount  was  considered  due,  as  rent  to  be  paid  in  this 
manner.  The  government  at  the  outset  offered  no  furtlier 
Encouragement. 

The  subscribers  to  the  fund  regarded  their  stock  as  an  invest- 
ment, and  not  as  so  much  given  to  the  "public,  and  they 
expected  a  return  of  interest  on  the  capital  invested.  It  will 
be  seen  that  here  was  a  difficult  problem  to  solve  ;  the  manage- 
ment of  the  farm  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  to  the  neighbor- 
hood and  the  country  tliat  the  method  adopted  was  better  than 
others,  which  was  necessary  in  order  to  secure  for  it  a  proper 
degree  of  confidence  and  respect,  and  at  the  same  time  to  hire 
teaclicrs  and  keep  up  the  machinery  of  scientific  and  practical 
instruction,  and  after  doing  both,  to  make  a  net  annual  dividend 
to  the  stockholders. 

To  meet  this  somcwliat  anomalous  condition,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  be  a  little  economical  in  salaries  to  teachers  and 
professors,  and  thereby  to  sacrifice  to  some  extent  the  interests 
of  tiie  people,  to  whom  the  value  and  efficiency  of  the  enter- 
j)rise  as  an  institute  of  agriculture  was  of  the  first  importance. 
The  profits  of  the  farm  had  to  make'up  any  deficiencies  in  the 
costs  of  the  school,  but  tiie  necessity  of  low  salaries  made  it 
impossible  to  secure  teachers  of  the  highest  talent,  while  tl)0 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  67 

price  fixed  for  tuition,  <fec.,  put  it  out  of  the  power  of  many 
students  to  attend  the  course. 

The  government,  seeing  very  early  in  the  undertaking  that 
the  company  would  be  likely  to  have  a  hard  bargain,  very 
generously  offered  pecuniary  aid  in  addition  to  the  terms  on 
which  the  estate  was  taken,  but  the  director  refused  to  accept 
it,  fearing  that  it  would  injure  the  influence  and  credit  of  his 
farming,  as  an  example  or  model  for  others,  if  it  were  known 
that  any  part  of  the  funds  came  from  sources  other  than  the 
farm  itself.  The  same  objection  could  not  be  urged  against 
the  salaries  of  the  professors  being  assumed  by  the  government, 
and  this  enabled  the  school  to  secure  a  much  higher  grade  of 
talent  in  its  corps  of  instructors,  while  the  terms  were  reduced 
so  as  to  increase  the  number  of  pupils  and  the  efficiency  and 
importance  of  the  school. 

The  director,  M.  Bella, — father  of  the  present  director, — 
in  one  of  his  earlier  reports,  makes  the  following  sensible 
remarks : — 

"  Instruction  in  husbandry  may  truly  be  said  not  to  partake 
of  the  nature  of  those  branches  of  education  which  admit  o| 
being  pursued  in  the  centre  of  large  cities  ;  it  is  at  once  so  vast 
and  so  complicated,  and  it  stands  so  much  in  need  of  a  union 
of  theory  with  practice,  that  the  chairs  created  in  towns,  though 
they  may  spread  a  taste  for  agriculture,  cannot  in  themselves 
form  expert  husbandmen. 

"  If  government  were  to  feel  itself  called  upon  to  carry  on 
a  system  of  farming  operations  in  all  their  separate  depart- 
ments, in  order  to  test  the  soundness  of  theories  by  the  results 
of  practice,  many  difficulties  would  occur  in  the  execution  of 
the  task,  and  a  much  more  lavish  expenditure  must,  if  we 
may  trust  to  general  belief,  be  incurred,  than  would  happen  if 
tlie  same  were  in  the  hands  of  individuals.  It  is  more  prudent, 
therefore,  on  the  part  of  the  State,  that  it  should  associate 
itself  with  some  scheme  already  in  the  hands  of  individuals, 
and  even  here  its  intervention  would  be  prejudicial,  if  its  co- 
oi)eration  were  proffijred  to  establishments  which  did  not 
present  in  themselves  sufficient  guarantees,  and  if  the  assistance 
it  affi)rded  were  not  confined  within  proper  limits. 

"  Thus  it  would  plainly  be  a  fault  for  it  to  mix  itself  up  with 
any  scheme,  which  did  not  possess  the  conditions  of  duration 


68  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

necessary  for  the  accomplisliment  of  its  proposed  office ;  or 
which  had  not  been  proved  to  contain  within  itself  the  elements 
of  success;  or,  lastly,  which  did  not  promise  to  establish  by  its 
results,  that  the  cooperation  of  the  government  was  designed 
solely  for  tl)e  advantage  of  tlie  country  at  large,  and  not  to 
promote  the  individual  benefit  of  the  company." 

Thus  the  government  came  in  simply  in  aid  of  a  private 
speculation  so  far  as  to  supply  the  means  of  a  better  kind  of 
instruction,  at  a  less  cost  to  students  who  should  ei»ter  the 
school  of  agriculture.  The  aid  came  in  to  enlarge  the  benefits 
of  the  institution,  and  to  increase  the  means  of  diffusing  agri- 
cultural knowledge. 

The  wisdom  of  the  early  interference  and  aid  of  the  govern- 
ment is  sufficiently  attested  by  the  subsequent  history  of  tlie 
establishment.  Carried  on  with  the  idea  and  expectation  of 
profit,  no  expensive  experiments  could  be  undertaken,  of 
course,  and  after  the  scliool  had  been  some  ten  years  in  opera- 
tion, the  director  excused  himself,  to  a  gentleman  who  called, 
for  not  making  experiments,  by  saying  that  the  school  was 
«upported  by  stockholders  with  whom  it  was  an  indispensable 
condition,  that  the  farm  should  pay  a  profit;  saying,  at  the 
same  time,  that  the  German  schools  like  Hohenheim,  being 
supported  by  government,  ouglit  to  be  expected  to  make 
researches  calculated  to  throw  light  on  the  principles  of  agri- 
culture. 

The  lands  were  poor  and  much  run  out,  though  various  in 
natural  quality.  Now  the  lands  are  worth  six  times  as  much 
as  they  were  when  the  enterprise  began,  while  some  hundreds 
of  young  agriculturists  have  gone  forth,  competent  for  advice 
and  execution,  to  apply  the  principles  of  the  improved  culture 
in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

In  1848,  the  government  took  the  instruction  under  its 
charge,  reduced  the  number  of  professors  from  eight  to  six, 
transformed  the  royal  institute  into  a  regional  school,  and  on 
the  7th  of  December,  1852,  this  school  received  the  title  of 
Imperial  School  of  Agriculture.  Tlie  management  of  the 
estate  remained  in  the  liands  of  the  society,  a  sort  of  board  of 
trustees,  which  bears  the  title  of  Agricultural  Society  of  Grig- 
non.  The  director  is  nominated  by  the  council  of  the  society 
and  confirmed  by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  69 

The  capital  employed  amounts  to  $80  an  acre  of  the  culti- 
vated land,  and  includes  the  stock,  fixtures,  forage,  grain,  &c., 
that  is,  the  whole  working  outfit  of  the  farm.  This  capital  pays 
on  the  average  about  10  per  cent.;  a  part  of  it  goes  to  the 
shai;e-holders,  a  part  to  the  increase  of  implements,  and  a  part 
to  the  establishment  of  a  reserve  or  sinking  fund,  which  is 
already  about  $16,000. 

As  to  the  farm,  it  was  not  necessary,  to  show  the  merits  of 
improved  culture  and  the  benefit  it  can  render  to  the  country, 
to  select  lands  already  rich  and  productive.  M.  Bella  refused 
other  places  which  were  offered,  and  cliose  Grignon,  which  was 
noted  for  its  undesirable  condition  and  the  poverty  of  its  soil. 
Many  things  were  in  its  favor,  however.  The  extent  of  the 
domain,  the  importance  of  the  buildings,  a  large  park  walled  in, 
a  sufficient  distance  from  cities,  a  very  favorable  climate,  a^oil 
so  situated  as  to  correspond  to  conditions  farther  south  than 
even  many  places  in  the  south  of  France  itself,  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  great  markets  of  Poissy  and  Saint  Germain,  and  of 
the  celebrated  flocks  of  Rambouillet,  Videville  and  of  Doua- 
ridre,  and  that  of  Paris,  with  its  great  scientific  and  industrial 
establishments,  its  museum  of  natural  history,  its  conserva- 
tory of  arts  and  trades,  while  several  great  and  practically 
model  farms,  which  offered  an  opportunity  for  valuable  practical 
instruction  to  the  pupils  were  near  by,  and  pointed  to  Grignon 
as  the  place  to  found  a  great  agricultural  institute. 

The  domain  is  situated  about  twenty  or  twenty-five  miles 
west  of  Paris,  and  sixteen  or  eighteen  north  of  Rambouillet, 
and  consists  of  about  1,170  acres,  of  which  600  are  arable,  70 
or  so  in  natural  pasture,  10  in  garden,  6  under  water,  70  occu- 
pied by  buildings,  roads  and  gardens,  and  the  balance  woodland. 

These  lands  are  partly  on  a  plateau,  nearly  400  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  partly  in  a  valley  rather  abrupt,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  runs  a  stream  which  rises  at  Versailles,  about 
ten  miles  off.  This  valley  embraces  tlie  park  of  Grignon,  of 
about  750  acres  in  extent,  enclosed.  Tiiey  formerly  belonged 
to  the  immense  estates  of  noble  families,  till  divided  at  tiie 
revolution  of  1793,  when  this  part, 'the  estate  of  Grignon, 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  father-in-law  of  Marshal  Ney,  who 
was  married  tliere.  It  was  bought  by  Napoleon  I.  and  given  to 
Marshal  Bessieros.    Napoleon  used  to  come  there  to  hunt  foxes. 


70  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  widow  of  Bessi6res  sold  it  to  Charles  X.  Tiio  Duchess 
d'Angouleme  visited  it  in  company  with  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux, 
and  afterwards  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  the  Duke  de  Nemours 
paid  their  respects  there. 

The  soil  near  the  brook  in  the  valley  is,  in  part,  a  rich  allu- 
vial  deposited  by  the  stream.  This  rests  on  a  white  chalk, 
colored  with  black  silex,  which  constitutes  the  bottom  of  the 
valley.  Plastic  clay  occurs  a  little  higher  up.  Coarse  lime- 
stone rises  above  this  clay,  and  contains  marl  very  rich  in 
shells,  perfectly  preserved.  Six  hundred  varieties  are  found  in 
it.  This  land  is  very  rocky.  The  calcareous  parts  of  the  soil 
are  wanting  in  depth,  and  become  extremely  dry  and  hard  in 
summer.  They  are  valued  in  the  neighborhood  at  from  sixteen 
to  forty  dollars  an  acre.  The  climate  is  good.  It  is  seventy- 
fivei  or  eighty  miles  from  the  sea.  Peaches,  trailed  up  in  espa- 
lier fashion  on  the  garden  wall,  were  in  full  bearing  when  I  was 
there. 

The  buildings  are  arranged  in  a  manner  little  adapted  to  the 
objects  of  the  institute.  They  are  1,200  feet  from  the  lowest 
part  of  the  valley,  and  separated  from  most  of  the  farm  by 
steep  slopes,  which  adds  so  much  to  the  labor  account,  that 
Thaer  said  he  would  never  have  consented  to  undertake  to  cul- 
tivate in  such  conditions.  The  chateau  is  of  very  simple  and 
solid  architecture,  built  of  stone  and  brick,  in  the  style  of  Louis 
XIIL,  the  time  when  it  was  constructed.  It  forms  an  open 
square  to  the  nortli,  at  the  angles  of  which  there  are  four  pavil- 
ions. The  principal  body,  towards  the  south-west,  comprises, 
on  the  ground  floor,  the  vestibules,  the  chapel,  the  eating 
saloons  and  the  collections.  On  the  second  and  third  stories 
are  the  dormitories.  The  south  pavilion  contains  the  kitchen 
below  ground,  the  offices  of  the  agricultural  society  at  the 
entrance,  and  those  of  the  school  and  of  the  director  on  the 
second  floor.  The  body  of  the  wing  and  pavilion  is  appropri- 
ated to  the  director  and  his  family. 

The  west  pavilion  and  west  wing  include  the  halls  and  recita- 
tion rooms,  the  north  pavilion  the  apartments  of  the  assistant- 
director.  There  are  open  courts  on  the  two  sides,  at  the  south- 
west of  tlie  chateau.  Tiie  farm  buildings,  since  they  have 
been  occupied  by  the  society,  have  become  quite  insufficient, 
and  many  additions  have  been  required  in  the  shape  of  grana- 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  71 

ries,  pig-sties,  sheep-folds,  and  a  starch  manufactory,  which  at 
least  double  the  former  capacity  of  the  farm.  The  new  build- 
ings are  simple  and  well-adapted  to  the  end  in  view. 

The  stable  is  placed  in  the  left  hand  side  of  the  yard,  the 
samg  as  that  occupied  by  the  former  residents  of  the  chateau. 
It  contains  twenty,  mares  or  gelded  horses.  The  mare  has 
been  preferred  on  account  of  her  quiet  docility  and  lower 
price,  and  also  because  some  attention  is  paid  to  breeding. 
Most  of  them  are  Percherons,  and  crosses  with  Percherons  and 
Normans,  and  Bretons.  Two  are  Suffolks,  and  two  crosses  of 
Cleveland  Bays  and  Suffolks.  The  ox-stalls  have  ten  head  of 
the  Swiss  and  Durham,  Swiss  and  Limousin  crosses.  The 
stables  for  the  dairy  are  placed  at  the  north  side  of  the  two 
farm  ways.  They  hold  about  a  hundred  head,  of  Normans 
and  Swiss  -and  some  Shorthorn  and  Norman  crosses,  some 
Ayrshires,  and  some  of  the  little  Bretons. 

A  long  experience  has  shown  that  at  Grignon,  the  Swiss, 
which  are  the  heaviest,  are  kept  more  easily  than  other  races, 
even  when  obliged  to  keep  them  on  poor  and  insufficient  pas- 
tures, and  that  tliey  are  most  profitable,  that  is,  they  give  a 
greater  yield  of  milk  in  proportion  to  food  and  live  weight. 
The  average  yield  of  milk  varies,  generally,  from  six  and  a 
half  to  eight  quarts  per  head  per  day  for  the  year.  Milk  is  the 
chief  object  of  the  dairy,  because  the  production  of  milk  gives 
a  larger  profit  from  an  acre  of  forage  than  beef;  but  they  try  to 
combine  the  production  of  milk  with  a  fat  carcase,  without 
feeding  so  high,  however,  as  to  lay  on  tallow.  The  bulls  are 
worked  daily.  The  herd  is  fed  in  the  stable,  as  far  as  possible, 
but  driven  out  for  exercise  each  day,  especially  the  young 
cattle.  A  herdsman  has  charge  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
two,  feeding  and  milking  them. 

A  piggery  has  been  built  by  the  society.  It  keeps  from  forty 
to  forty-five  sows,  and  four  or  five  boars.  They  consist,  mostly, 
of  the  lOnglish  Berkshires  and  Hampshires,  which  have  been  bred 
at  Grignon  from  the  start.  They  are  held  in  high  estimation 
and  much  sought  after,  both  for  breeding  and  fattening.  They 
have  got  up  a  white  l)reed,  which  is  a  little  more  fine  and  delicate. 
The  Grignon  breed  is  very  hardy  and  prolific,  the  average  of 
pigs  very  rarely  falling  below  sixteen  for  each  female  in  a  year. 
That  is  the  general  average  of  the  sties.     It  is  easily  fed  and 


72  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

fattened.  They  easily  obtain  270  pounds  of  pork,  at  eight 
months,  and  450  at  a  year  old.  Young  choice  pigs  are  readily 
sold  at  $Q  apiece,  at  four  weeks  old,  and  ordinary  ones  at  83, 
for  fattening. 

The  sheep-fold  was  built  for  the  purpose,  and  is  capable  of 
keeping  1,200  sheep  and  their  food.  The  larger  part  of  the 
flock  is  composed  of  a  cross  of  Leicester-Merinos,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  three-quarters  Merinos  and  one-quarter  Leicester. 
This  cross  is  now  fixed  at  Grignon,  and  gives  excellent  results. 
The  sheep  are  generally  fattened  at  two  years,  and  give,  at  thip 
age,  from  forty-five  to  sixty  pounds  of  mutton.  The  wool  is 
long  and  can  be  carded,  and  is  sold  from  two  to  two  and  a  half 
francs  the  killogramrae  (of  two  and  a  quarter  pounds.)  The 
average  weight  of  the  fleece  is  about  nine  pounds,  in  the  grease. 
They  have  also  a  small  flock  of  South  Downs,  which  is  very  much 
esteemed  for  the  quality  of  its  mutton  and  its  easy  keeping 
qualities.  A  shepherd  has  charge  of  from  two  to  three  hundred 
head. 

They  also  keep  some  fowls  and  raise  silk-worms,  commencing 
in  June  and  ending  in  July,  but  only  enough  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  instruction. 

A  part  of  the  yard  which  separates  the  cow  stalls  from  the 
hay  and  forage  barn,  is  devoted  to  making  manure,  in  platforms 
on  which  it  is  worked  over.  The  attention  of  visitors  is  espec- 
ially called  to  the  process  of  making  manure,  a  thing  too  often 
neglected  in  France ;  and  yet  the  great  and  single  problem 
to  solve,  in  agricultural  industry,  is  the  economical  manufacture 
of  manure.  Quantity,  quality  and  cheap  fertilizing  materials, 
are  the  source  of  great  profit  and  prosperity  in  farming. 

The  choice  of  cropping  and  the  low  price  of  forage,  the  rations, 
&c.,  modify  the  price  of  the  yield  and  the  quantity  of  manure 
produced  ;  the  process  of  manufacture  acting  directly  on  tlie 
quality,  it  will  be  useful  to  indicate,  in  detail,  the  care  devoted 
to  this  preparation. 

One  man  has  special  charge  of  this  work.  The  manure  plat- 
forms are  sixty  feet  long  and  eighteen  feet  wide,  and  are  carefully 
macadamized  and  made  slightly  convex  towards  the  outer  bor- 
ders. A  trench  surrounds  them  and  serves  to  conduct  the 
liquids,  which  empty  into  a  kind  of  manure  cistern,  placed 
between  the  two  heaps. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  73 

Every  morning  the  manure  of  tlio  horses,  oxen  and  cows,  is 
carried  from  the  stables  and  wheeled,  in  wheelbarrows,  upon 
the  platforms ;  there  it  is  spread  in  layers  regularly  with  the 
fork. 

Ihe  sheep  manure  is  carried  out  of  the  pens  every  three 
weeks,  in  winter,  and  every  six  weeks  in  summer.  This  warm 
manure  is  carefully  spread  in  alternate  layers  with  that  from 
the  pig-sties.  Tlie  heaps  are  raised  to  a  height  of  nine  fefet. 
The  upper  part  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  earth  to  prevent  evap- 
oration, and  to  concentrate  the  gas  generated  by  fermentation. 
The  heaps  are  watered  with  the  liquid  accumulated  in  the 
trenches  or  cisterns,  whenever  it  is  necessary. 

When  the  manure  has  come  to  its  normal  condition,  tlie  vol- 
ume of  the  heaps  has  been   reduced  about  one-third,  and  the  ^ 
cubic  yard  weighs  about  1,690   pounds.     There  are  260  cubic 
yards  to  the  heap.     The  number  of  these  heaps  made  yearly 
is  twelve  to  fifteen. 

When  the  time  has  come  to  carry  out  tlie  manure  into  the 
fields,  the  precaution  is  taken  to  cut  it  down  with  a  manure 
knife  in  slices  perpendicular  to  the  platforms,  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  upper  layers  are  mixed  with  the  lower  layers  upon  the 
cart.  By  this  very  simple  mode  the  manure  is  equal  and 
uniform  upon  the  whole  field.  I  examined  this  process  with 
care,  and  its  economy,  where  the  labor  is  at  command, 
appears  to  be  proved  by  experience.  The  same  mode  could 
be  adopted  in  many  of  our  barn  cellars,  where  much  of  the 
labor  of  wheeling  would  be  saved. 

There  is  also  an  implement  manufactory  established  as  an 
aid  in  the  courses  of  engineering  and  rural  construction.  It 
furnishes  the  students  the  tools  which  they  have  learned  here  to 
use,  while  many  farmers  rely  upon  the  Grignon  manufactory 
for  the  tools  in  general  farm  cultivation.  They  say  they  have 
orders  from  the  centre  of  France,  from  Portugal,  Spain,  Algeria 
and  America,  though  I  do  not  think  we  have  occasion  to  order 
largely.  At  the  World's  Fair  of  1855-6  the  Grignon  plough 
was  the  lightest  of  all,  and  took  the  great  gold  medal. 

The   tools  made  tiiero,  and   used   on  the  farm,  are  ploughs, 
and  the  gang  plouglis,  double  and  triple,  are  in  higii  repute, 
harrows,  cultivators,  horse-hoes  and   scarifiers,    rollers,   seed- 
sowers,  root-cutters,  liquid  manure  pumps,  carts,  &c. 
10 


74  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

To  the  west  of  the  chateau  is  a  little  building  designed  to 
furnish  the  pu[)ils  the  means  of  cultivating  a  field  of  exercise 
and  study.  This  building  includes  a  stable  and  six  head  of 
cattle,  a  little  barn,  a  collection  of  iniplcnients,  another  of  cul- 
tivated plants,  a  granary  and  slaughter-house.  On  this  place 
the  students  manage  as  they  wish,  going  through  all  the  opera- 
tions incident  to  a  large  estate.  Close  by  is  a  shed  for  making 
drainage  tile,  and  a  beet-root  distillery,  a  starch  manufac- 
tory, tfec. 

Depth  of  ploughing  on  the  one  hand  and  the  abundance  of  the 
manures  applied,  as  well  as  the  chai-actcr  of  the  croppings  and 
the  rotation,  distinguish  the  cultivation  of  Grignon  over  that  of 
the  general  farming  of  France.  They  plough  up  the  stubble  as 
soon  as  possible  after  harvesting.  This  ploughing  is  designed 
for  the  destruction  of  weeds.  The  work  is  done  with  the 
double  or  trij)le  'jjlough,  which  is  considered  best  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  second  ploughing  is  dune  with  the  ordinary  plough, 
and  when  it  is  designed  to  sow  colza  or  roots,  another  Jiorse 
subsoil  })lough  follows  the  third  ploughing. 

As  they  make  about  6,750,000  pounds  of  manure  a  year, 
they  use  nearly  70,000  pounds  per  acre.  Tiiis  manure  is  half 
decomposed  and  buried  to  the  depth  of  the  ploughing  to  compel 
plants  to  push  their  long  roots  down  towards  the  subsoil. 

The  domain  is  divided  into  nine  courses,  one  of  which  is  iu 
natural  meadow ;  that  is,  cultivated  with  the  natural  or  true 
grasses  ;  two  for  artificial  meadows,  lucerne,  sainfoin  and  clover  ; 
one  for  annual  forage,  vetches,  pease,  Indian  corn,  <fcc.  ;  and 
one  for  roots,  the  products  of  which  are  all  consumed  by  the 
cattle.  So  that  five-ninths  of  the  area  are  designed  to  keep  up 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  while  four-ninths  only  are  reserved  for 
exhausting  plants,  the  cereals  and  colza.  Adding  to  this  the 
fields  lying  along  the  brook,  we  see  that  the  course  of  cropping 
adopted  is  decidedly  ameliorating.  They  feed  900  pounds  live 
weight  of  cattle  per  acre,  on  an  average.  Nor  is  the  rotation 
adopted  less  calculated  to  improve  the  soil  than  the  course  of 
cropping,  because  it  places  the  artificial  meadows — clover, 
lucerne,  ttc, — in  the  most  favorable  conditions,  close  to  the 
root  crops,  which  are  abundantly  manured,  and  it  alternates 
carefully  the  cereals  with  hoed  crops  which  clean  the  land  and 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  75 

prevent  its  exhaustion.     The  manuring  is  not  wholly  used  up 
when  another  is  added,  as  will  be  seen  in  this  course. 

1.  Roots,  strongly  manured. 

2.  Cereals,  mostly  spring  grains. 

3.  Clover. 

4.  Wheat. 

5.  Annual  forage,  for  soiling  cattle,  half-manured. 

6.  Colza. 

7.  Wheat.. 

There  is,  sometimes,  a  deviation  from  tliis  rotation,  lucerne 
sown  instead  of  clover.  Oats  follow  the  old  lucerne,  and 
spring  and  autumn  wheat  follows  roots.  This  rotation  divides 
the  labor  over  the  season  advantageously. 

The  potato  once  stood  at  tlie  head  of  the  rotation  at  Grig- 
non.  It  contributed  much  to  improve  the  calcareous  soils 
newly  turned  up.  They  cultivated  first  a  late  yellow  variety, 
which  produced  on  an  average  from  330  to  350  bushels  per 
acre.  *  Since  tlie  appearance  of  the  disease,  they  cultivate  an 
early  yellow  variety,  which  docs  not  yield  more  tlian  from  IGO 
to  275  bushels. 

The  I)eets,  first  cultivated  for  the  immediate  consumption  of 
stock,  had  the  best  part  of  the  rotation  of  roots.  It  was  a 
variety  of  the  Silesian,  witli  tlie  long  neck,  yielding  largely. 
After  tliat  tlie  yellow  globe  was  preferred.  But  since  the  lands 
have  been  improved  and  the  distillery  was  built  the  roots  go 
first  to  the  distillery  and  then  to  the  stock,  so  that  the  sugar 
beet  is  cultivated.  The  Roue  of  Flanders,  and  white  Magdeburg, 
comprise  the  greater  part  of  the  roots  cultivated.  They  are 
sown  with  the  Grigiion  seed-sower.  The  yield  varies  from 
86,000  to  74,000  pounds  per  acre. 

The  carrot  is  the  most  expensive  root  cultivated,  and  yet  it  is 
the  most  profitable  on  account  of  its  great  yield.  Carrots  are 
grown  for  horses  and  to  vary  the  root  fodder  of  homed  cattle 
and  lambs.  The  varieties  arc  the  white,  with  the  green  neck 
and  the  long  red.  The  average  product  per  acre,  40,000  to 
to  00,000  pounds. 

Tlio  artichoke  served  as  a  transition  crop  to  improve  poor, 
calcarc<jus  soils,  which  it  occupied  for  several  years  without 
receiving  any  manure.  It  has  been  since  cultivated  in  the  same 
conditions  as  other  roots.     It  yields  from   22,500  to  31,500 


76  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

pounds  of  roots,  on  an  average,  per  acre,  and  2,700  pounds  of 
stalks  wlilch,  when  cut,  are  mixed  with  the  residue  of  the 
distillery  and  fed  to  cattle. 

Wheat,  sown  in  spring  after  roots,  manured  and  on  a  single 
ploughing,  has  regulaily  given  results  which  compare  well  with 
winter  wheat,  not  only  in  point  of  quantity  yielded,  hut  in 
weight  and  quality.  Tlie  general  yield  is  from  twenty-seven  to 
thirty-eigiit  hushels  per  acre.  Mixture  of  wheat  is  common 
there,  and  succeeds  well. 

The  oat  cultivated  there  is  hrown. and  small.  It  yields  well. 
It  is  tlie  Iloudau  oat.  Average  product  from  thirty-three  to 
sixty-six  hushels  per  acre. 

The  variety  of  bai'lcy  is  the  two-rowed.  Its  average  yield  is 
from  thirty-three  to  forty-five  hushels  per  acre. 

Clover  would  not  succeed  well  at  fii-st,  at  Gi-ign.on,  and  was 
not  cultivated.  Now  it  yields  excellent  cro})s,  amounting  to 
from  2,7U0  to  4,500  pounds  per  acre. 

The  high  cost  of  vetches  for  seed  and  the  advantffges  of 
Indian  corn  for  green  fodder  have  led  to  the  extensive  culture 
of  the  latter,  but  they  cultivate  all  the  kinds  of  green  fodder 
from  the  earliest  to  the  latest.  Grignon  first  introduced  the 
Molia  de  Iloxgrie,  or  Hungarian  millet,  which  has  succeeded 
admirably. 

Colza,  after  having  been  cultivated  by  sowing  in  rows,  is  now 
always  transplanted. 

Sainfoin  formerly  was  cultivated  alone  but  is  now  mixed 
with  lucerne  and  clover,  in  order  to  render  the  meadows  more 
suitable  for  pasturing  sheep.  Lucerne  is  sown  at  the  rate  of 
twenty-two  pounds  per  acre.  The  variety  which  iuis  gi\en  the 
best  result  is  tluit  of  Provence.  It  yields  from  2.TU0  to  5,400 
pounds  per  acre.  Tlie  I'arni  cuts  not  fur  from  about  -500  tons 
of  hay,  including  the  lucerne  and  clover.  Al)out  forty-eight 
acres  ar*;  in  natural  meadows,  that  is,  in  Timothy,  redlop  and 
similar  grasses. 

It  is  a  precci)t  of  the  school  at  Grignon  that,  the  land  is  a 
machine  which  it  is  best  to  imjH'ove,  whenever  it  is  in  favorable 
economical  relations,  in  older  to  make  it  work  as  well  as 
possiltle.  The  improvements  accordingly  comnieneed  on  the 
jjoorest,  or,  at  least,  the  most  exhausted  lauds,  and  they  have 
been  pretty  complete. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  77 

Though  the  imperial  school  was  detached  from  the  charge  of 
the  agricultural  society  the  personnel  of  instruction  and  the 
relations  of  the  students,  with  the  body  carrying  on  the  farm, 
have  not  changed.  The  society  and  direction  furnish,  as 
formerly,  all  the  means  of  study  and  investigation  that  can  be 
desired.     The  school  and  the  farm  are  under  the  same  director. 

The  pupils  are  required  to%ork  four  hours  a  day,  and  are 
successively  charged  with  different  service  on  the  farm,  which 
they  are  called  upon  to  observe  daily.  They  assist  from  four 
and  a  half  in  the  morning,  in  the  order  of  work  which  the 
director  gives  to  the  different  chiefs,  and  in  the  evening  they 
assist  in  the  daily  reports  which  are  given  in  to  the  director, 
and  in  entering  upon  the  books  the  reports  u.pon  all  the  opera- 
tions of  the  farm.  The  labors  which  they  perform  are  various. 
They  comprise  the  cultivation,  the  care  of  animals,  the  manu- 
factories, the  permanent  improvements,  building  of  roads,  the 
care  of  the  forest,  the  gardens,  &c.  They  attend,  during  the  visits 
of  the- veterinary  surgeon,  in  the  cattle  stalls;  they  curry  the 
cattle  and  horses,  and  perform  various  operations  under  the 
directions  of  the  heads  of  the  various  branches.  Each  pupil  is 
obliged  to  make  a  detailed  report  to  the  director  upon  tlie  work 
he  performs,  and  is  allowed  to  make  any  suggestions  he  may  see 
fit,  wliieh  are  accepted  and  acted  on  wlien  practicable. 

This  constitutes  tlie  practical  part  of  their  education.  Two 
are  appointed  as  general  inspectors  under  the  orders  of  the 
director,  and  the  duties  alternate  ;  that  is,  a  certain  number 
has  charge  of  one  department  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  say  a 
week  or  a  month,  and  then  they  are  assigned  to  anotlier  depart- 
ment in  succession  ;  as,  for  instance,  four  may  be  cliarged  with 
the  management  of  the  oxen  ;  two  witli  that  of  the  horses  ;  two 
with  the  pigs  ;  two  with  the  sheep  ;  two  with  the  poultry  ;  four 
with  the  silk-worm  establishment ;  forming  thus  a  sort  of 
committee  on  each  branch,  the  duty  of  which  is  to  sec  that 
projjcr  attention  is  paid  to  all  tlie  details,  as  among  stock,  to 
see  that  it  is  properly  fed,  to  note  tlie  results  of  any  changes  of 
feed,  c^'c.  .'-^o,  too,  with  the  garden  ;  two  or  more  are  aj)|)ointed  ; 
two  on  woods  and  ])lantations  ;  two  to  inspect  the  rcj)airs  and 
improvements  going  on  ;  two  on  the  manufacture  of  stai'ch, 
cheese  and  other  manufactured  prodncts  ;  two  on  book-keeping 
and  accounts,  ttc. 


78  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

I  believe  tlie  practice  is  to  liave  one  of  the  two  on  each 
committee  of  two  years  standiii<^  and  the  other  a  newly-entered 
pupil.  At  the  end  of  the  week  all  are  required  to  make  a 
report  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  school,  when  the  professor 
comments  or  enlarges  upon  the  various  operations  going  on, 
and  gives  such  additional  information  as  may  be  suggested  by 
the  facts  presented.  In  additioif  to  this  exercise,  wliich  has 
the  clfect  to  train  the  young  men  in  the  art  of  composition  and 
the  skilful  use  of  language,  as  well  as  to  keep  them  informed 
of  the  working  of  the  whole  system,  the  professor  takes  the 
classes  to  see  the  various  operations  on  tlie  farm,  pointing  out 
the  most  approved  method  of  performing  them,  etc.  lie  lec- 
tures thus  on  the  diirerent  practical  processes  of  farming  at  the 
seasons  when  they  actually  take  place. 

Each  ])rofcssor,  in  his  own  department,  moreover,  is  expected 
to  give  his  instruction  a  practical  turn,  by  means  of  short 
excursions,  botanical,  geological,  &c. 

It  is  thus  they  are  initiated  into  the  daily  routine  of  the  farm, 
and  become  the  active  agents  of  this  great  rival  administration. 
Whenever  an  interesting  experiment  is  proposed  by  a  student, 
the  director  puts  the  machinery,  animals,  <tc.,  at  the  disposal 
of  the  professors  or  tutors,  and  the  pupils  are  designated  to 
make  the  investigations. 

The  scliool  takes  only  inside  pupils  ;  that  is,  they  must  all 
live  on  the  ])Iace.  Xo  one  is  admitted  except  on  a  preparatory 
examination  at  the  chief  place  of  his  department,* and  final 
trials  also  take  place  at  the  school.  Tlie  candidate  must  be 
seventeen  years  old,  and  be  a  Frenchman  or  a  naturalized 
citizen.  Whoever  desires  to  enter  must  address  liis  ajiplication 
to  the  ]\nni&ter  of  Agriculture,  on  or  before  the  2r)tli  September 
of  cacli  year,  with  certificates — 

1st.  Of  the  place  and  date  of  birth. 

2d.  Certificate  of  the  mayor  of  his  residence,  to  the  effect 
that  he  is  of  good  life  and  morals. 

3d.  Of  a  ])hysician,  that  he  has  been  vaccinated,  and  has 
had  the  p(,'tit  varioloid. 

4th.  Ail  obligation,  on  stamped  paper,  by  the  parents,  tutor, 
or  guardian  of  the  candidate,  to  guarantee  the  jiayment,  a  term 
in  advance,  of  his  board  during;  his  sojourn  at  the  school. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  79 

After  passing  the  examination  at  home  and  having  got  the 
authority  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  they  repair  to  Grignon 
on  the  morning  of  the  1st  of  October,  present  themselves  to  the 
director,  who  gives  each  a  number  in  the  order  in  which  they 
will  be  examined.    This  examination  embraces  the  following  : — 

In  arithmetic,  the  four  rules,  fractions,  extraction  of  square 
and  cubic  roots,  proportions  a«i.d  progressions,  and  the  rule  of 
three. 

In  geometry,  propositions  relative  to  straight  lines,  angles, 
circles,  measuring  of  lines  and  plane  surfaces,  equivalent  to  the 
first  four  books  of  Legendre.  In  physics,  the  general  properties 
of  bodies,  the  thermometer  and  the  barometer. 

A  composition  in  French  is  also  required,  to  d>ow  the 
orthography  and  grammar  of  the  applicant.  When  the  trial  is 
ended,  the  admission  is  declared  according  to  the  order  of 
merit.  The  number  of  new  pupils  is  limited.  When  admitted, 
they  enter  immediately  upon  the  duties  assigned  them. 

The  duration  of  the  studies  is  three  years,  after  which  the 
capable  and  meritorious  students  receive  a  certificate.  The 
best  students,  on  going  out,  can  have  positions  for  two  years  in 
some  of  the  agricultural  establishments  of  the  government. 

The  school  year  begins  the  first  of  October,  and  is  divided  into 
two  terms.  At  the  end  of  each  there  is  an  examination  by  a 
committee.  The  first  term  is  five  months,  and  the  general 
examinations  at  the  end  of  the  first  term  take  place  from  the 
1st  to  the  loth  of  March.  Then  the  second  term  begins,  and 
comprises  the  last  half  of  March,  the  intervening  months  till 
August,  when  the  vacation  begins. 

The  instruction  is  theoretical  and  applied.  The  first  com- 
prises— 

1.  A  course  of  physics,  chemistry,  mineralogy  and  geology, 
applied  to  agriculture. 

2.  Rural  engineering. 

3.  Cultivation. 

4.  Zootechny  and  agricultural  zoology. 

5.  Sylviculture  and  botany. 

6.  Economy  and  rural  legislation. 

7.  Practical  notions  of  farm  accounts. 

The  practical  instruction  is  manual  and  rational.  It  com- 
prises the  use  and    management   of  farm  tools,  implements, 


80  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

carriages,  machines ;  the  organization  and  execution  of  the 
principal  operations  of  agriculture,  ploughing,  sowing,  seeding, 
harvesting,  treatment  of  root  crops,  care  of  farm  stock  of  every 
kind,  exercises  in  linear  drawing,  surveying,  laying  out  plans, 
levelling,  getting  the  cubic  contents  of  solids,  some  of  the 
manipulations  of  the  laboratory,  analysis  of  soils,  application  of 
manures,  &c.  Agricultural  excursions  are  made,  as  well  as 
botanical,  geological,  and  forest.  Instruction  is  given  f)y  obserr 
vation  in  the*  horse  and  cattle  stables,  and  by  demonstrations 
on  the  field.  In  each  speciality  of  theoretical  and  practical 
instruction,  the  professor  is  aided  by  a  tutor.  All  these  courses, 
examinations,  <fcc.,  are  expressly  obligatory  on  every  pupil. 

There  is  a  chaj)lain  and  a  physician  attached  to  the  school. 

The  price  of  board,  etc.,  is  -1150  a  year.  It  includes  food, 
lodging  and  bed,  medical  attendance,  warming,  lighting,  and 
washing. 

Prizes  are  distributed  among  the  most  deserving  pupils. 

Tiicro  are  three  of  these  imperial  schools  of  agriculture  in 
France,  but  Grigiion  is  the  largest,  as  well  as  the  oldest  and 
best,  though  the  regulations,  terms  of  admission,  course  of 
instruction,  itc,  are  the  same  in  all. 

The  number  of  pupils  at  Grignon  is  usually  seventy-five. 

CIRENCESTER. 

The  agricultural  college  of  Cirencester,  in  England,  is  situated 
in  Gloucestershire,  about  ninety-five  miles  from  London.  It 
was  incorporated  on  the  27th  March,  1845,  for  the  purpose  of 
affording  a  practical  and  scientific  agricultural  education  to  stu- 
dents from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

I  visited  it  in  June,  taking  letters  of  introduction  to  Prof. 
Voclcker,  who  has,  for  some  years,  held  the  chair  of  agricultural 
chemistry  ;  but  who,  like  most  of  the  other  professors,  liad 
resigned,  and  was  about  removing  with  his  family  into  London. 
Owing,  partly  no  doubt,  to  the  peculiar  mode  of  management, 
this  institution  does  not  aj)pear  to  have  commended  itself  very 
strongly  to  the  confidence  and  good-will  of  the  people,  and 
hence  it  has  proved  to  be  a  partial,  not  to  say  a  complete  failure. 
It  has  now  a  debt  of  X 30,000  or  $150,000,  which  is  a  source 
of  great  embarrassment,  in  addition  to  the  various  other  causes 
of  ill  success,  which  need  not  be  stated  in  detail  here. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  81 

When  I  was  in  London,  in  1862,  all  the  professors  resigned 
their  positions,  and  most  of  them,  I  believe,  left ;  one  or  two, 
only,  having  been  persuaded  to  hold  on,  to  save  the  institution 
from  utter  ruin.  It  only  adds  another  to  the  list  of  instances, 
which  might  be  given,  to  show  that  success  or  failure  will  depend 
very  much  upon  the  man  at  the  head,  however  great  may  be 
the  incidental  advantages  which  may  concur  in  favor  of  sucli 
an  enterprise. 

A  mistake  appears  to  have  been  made  at  the  outset,  by  fixing 
the  charges  too  low.  It  was  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of 
those  young  men,  sons  of  farmers,  who  wished  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  stewards  or  bailiffs ;  and  who  could  ill  afford  to  pay 
even  the  £30,  wliich  was  the  amount  fixed,  including  board  and 
tuition.  Small  farmers  could  not  send  their  sons,  and  rich  ones 
would  not.  But  if  an  ungovernable  lad  had  been  rejected  or 
dismissed  from  other  schools,  he  was  pretty  sure  to  turn  up 
here,  and  the  consequence  was  the  college  got  a  large  proportion 
of  all  the  naughty  boys  in  the  kingdom. 

The  enterprise  was  started,  at  first,  as  a  joint-stock  company, 
the  stock  being  taken  up  by  subscription  ;  and  the  concern  was 
governed,  or  rather,  there  was  an  effort  made  to  govern  it,  by 
a  full  board  of- the  subscribers.  Such  an  arrangement,  as  might 
have  been  anticipated,  worked  badly;  and  after  running  a 
hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  in  debt,  with  no  means 
of  paying,  a  few  noblemen  came  forward  to  assume  the  debt  and 
the  management.  They  raised  the  charges  and  attempted  to 
put  the  establishment  on  a  different  basis. 

They  do  not  appear  to  have  remedied  the  difficulties  to  any 
great  extent;  though  the  institution  still  lives,  with  about  sixty 
students,  now  consisting  of  the  sons  of  tho  rich.  I  am  indebted 
to  various  individuals  for  many  facts  in  regard  to  the  college, 
in  addition  to  my  own  observations  on  the  spot,  and  I  draw,  also, 
from  the  printed  programme  that  was  placed  in  my  hands. 

Objects. — The  chief  object  of  this  institution  is  to  afford  such 
a  course  of  education,  as  will  be  most  useful  to  those  whose 
destined  profession  is  to  connect  them  with  agriculture,  at 
home  or  in  the  colonies,  whether  as  owners  or  occupiers  of 
land,  land  agents  or  stewards. 
11 


82  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  Col/cf^e  Bui/dings. — The  college,  which  adjoins  the  park 
and  woods  of  Earl  Huthurst,  is  situated  on  the  farm,  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  from  tiie  town.  The  principal  front,  190  feet 
long,  has  a  south  aspect,  and  commands  an  extensive  view  over 
North  Wiltshire.  The  buildings  include  a  chapel,  largo  dining 
hall,  lil)rary,  museums,  lecture  rooms,  laboratories,  class  rooms, 
private  studies,  kitchens  and  servants'  offices  ;  with  apartments 
for  resident  professors,  and  ranges  of  dormitories  on  the  upper 
floors.  The  whole  building  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  furnished 
with  ample  supplies  of  water.  The  best  methods  of  warming 
and  ventilation  have  been  adopted.  Each  student  has  a  sepa- 
rate sleeping  aj)artment,  and  private  studies  are  allotted  to  the 
meritorious  students,  as  they  become  vacant. 

T/ic  Farm. — The  farm,  which  surrounds  the  college,  contains 
about  500  acres,  of  which  450  are  arable,  of  a  varied  soil  and 
character.  The  farm  buildings  are  spacious,  and  well  adapted 
for  carrying  out  tlie  purposes  for  which  the  college  was  founded. 
A  steam  engine,  with  improved  mechanical  arrangemenls,  fur- 
nislies  all  the  power  for  threshing,  grinding,  &c. 

Live  stock,  of  various  kinds,  are  bred  and  reared  on  the  farm. 
Experiments  are  tried  on  portions  of  the  various  rotations  ;  and 
where  the  results  are  satisfactory,  they  are  carried  out  on  a 
larger  scale.  A  botanical  garden,  of  ample  extent,  enables  the 
professor,  under  whose  charge  it  is,  to  instruct  practically  in 
the  l)otany  of  agriculture  ;  and  to  show  to  the  students  various 
experiments  in  vegetable  physiology. 

The  Velerinarij  Hospital^  is  under  the  immediate  superin- 
tendence of  the  professor  of  the  department,  assisted  by  a  curator 
selected  from  among  the  more  advanced  students.  Animals  of 
all  kinds  are  received  for  treatment,  so  that  the  students  have 
opportunities  of  witnessing  operations  and  post  inorleni  examina- 
tions. 

Museums. — The  college  possesses  a  valuable  collection  of 
geological  specimens,  minerals  and  other  objects  of  natural 
history  ;  also  an  interesting  set  of  anatomical  and  pathological 
})reparations — such  as  casts  of  teeth,  to  illustrate  the  age  of  the 
horse,  sheep  and  other  animals  ;  and  is  now  pi'ovided,  by  the 
gift  of  Messrs.  Peter  Lawson  &  ^'on,  of  Edinlnirgh,  with  the 
extensive  museum  of  economic  botany,  prepared  by  those  gen- 
tlemen for  the  international  exhibition  of  1802.     This  collection 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  83 

contains  specimen  plants  of  nearly  all  the  varieties  of  known 
cereals,  samples  of  seed  of  every  species  of  plants  used  ))y  the 
agriculturist,  and  also  a  series  of  wax  models  of  every  variety 
of  cultivated  roots. 

Management. — The  management  of  the  whole  establishment 
of  the  college  is  committed  to  the  principal,  who  is  responsible 
to  the  council  for  every  thing,  and  superintends  and  controls 
every  department  of  tlie  college.  He  attends  to  the  religious 
instruction  and  moral  discii)line  of  every  in-student,  and  exer- 
cises such  supervision  over  tlie  conduct  and  pursuits  of  the  out- 
students,  as  the  nature  of  their  relations  with  the  college  will 
permit. 

Agriculture. — The  instruction  in  agriculture,  consisting  of 
lectures  and  practical  classes  on  the  farm,  is  given  by  the 
professor  of  practical  agriculture,  who  is  also  the  farm  manager, 
residing  on  the  farm,  wliore  students  have  every  opportunity 
of  becoming  acquainted  witli  and  taking  part  in  the  manual 
operations  of  husbandry.  They  thus  acquire  a  practical  knowl- 
edge of  the  management  of  labor;  of  the  uses  of  the  different 
implements ;  of  the  application  of  steam  machinery  to  farming 
purposes ;  of  the  breeding,  rearing,  feeding  and  general 
management  of  all  kinds  of  stock;  and  of  tlie  rotation  of  crops, 
and  their  fitness,  more  or  loss,  for  different  soils. 

Each  student  is  expected  to  keep  a  daily  journal  of  all  the 
operations  on  the  fai-m,  and  to  make  himself  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  tlie  accounts. 

Cheniulrn  and  Chemical  Manipulation. — A  well-appointed 
laboratory  is  devoted  to  instruction  in  chemical  manipulation 
and  analysis,  wliicli  are  taught  to  eacli  class  of  students  in  suc- 
cession, under  tlie  supGrintcudence  of  the  professor  of  cliemistry 
and  his  assistant. 

The  students,  after  studying  the  properties  of  tlie  more  com- 
monly occurriirg  substances,  are  made  to  analyze  a  series  of 
compounds,  proceeding  from  simjde  to  more  complex  cases  ; 
after  wliicli  they  apply  the  knowledge,  tlms  obtained,  to  tiic 
analysis  of  manures,  soils,  ashes  of  plants,  farm  products  and 
other  substances  more  immediately  useful  to  tlio  practical 
agriculturist. 

Analysis  of  artificial  manures,  oil-cakes,  waters,  kn..,  for 
membei's  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  ^Society,  and  others,  are 


84  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

daily  performed  in  the  college  laboratory;  and  chemico-agricul- 
tural  researches  undertaken  by  the  more  advanced  students, 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  Dr.  A.  Voelcker  and  assistants. 

Gfoloij;!/. — Besides  the  lectures  delivered  on  geology,  the 
students  are  instructed  by  accompanying  the  professor  of  geol- 
ogy in  field  excursions  and  geological  surveys  in  the  surrounding 
neighborhood. 

Entomolog-i/. — Lectures  on  entomology  are  delivered  weekly, 
and  students  are  encouraged  to  make  collections  of  insects. 

Botany. — A  complete  set  of  lectures  on  systematic  botany, 
illustrated  by  a  botanical  garden,  is  annually  delivered  ;  and 
the  j)rofessor  of  botany  conducts  botanical  excursions  weekly, 
during  the  summer  and  autumn  months. 

Vcterinari/  Medicine  and  Surgenj. — Instruction  in  this 
department  includes  a  complete  system  of  anatomy  and  pathol- 
ogy. Pupils  are  required  to  note  all  hospital  cases  in  their 
journals. 

Surveijing'  and  Civil  Engineering. — In  this  department  is 
embraced  instruction  in  those  mathematical  subjects,  which  are 
connected  with  surveying,  engineering,  <fcc.  ;  regular  and 
frequent  opportunities  being  afTorded  for  practical  instruction 
in  the  field  in  surveying,  levelling  and  land  measuring,  and  in 
the  use  of  the  theodolite,  spirit  level  and  other  instruments. 

Architectural  and  Blecluuiical  Draiving. — A  certified  master, 
from  tlie  science  and  art  department  of  the  committee  of  council 
on  education,  South  Kensington,  teaclies  these  suljjects. 

Admission. — The  principal  will  furnish  the  necessary  forms  for 
the  admission  of  in-students,  who  are  required  to  be  sixteen 
years  of  age. 

Out-students  are  admitted  to  attend  the  lectures  and  avail 
themselves  of  the  practical  instruction  of  the  institution.  Dur- 
ing their  pupilage  they  are  amenable  to  the  college  regulations, 
under  the  penalty  of  forfeiting  their  fees ;  which  arc  also  liable 
to  be  forfeited,  in  the  event  of  any  serious  misconduct  being 
brought  under  the  notice  of  the  pul)lic  authorities.  Plxccpt  in 
certain  cases,  oui-studeiits  are  recpiired  to  be  one-and-twenty 
years  of  age. 

Vacations. — There  are  two  vacations  in  the  year,  each 
exteudiiiti'  over  seven  weeks  ;  the  commencement  of  the  summer 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  85 

4 

one  being  about  the  18th  of  June,  and  of  the  whiter  one,  the 
18th  of  December. 

Charges. — Per  annum,  to  be  paid  half-yearly  in  advance, 
in-students,  X90  ;  out-students,  £42. 

There  are  a  icw  private  rooms  in  the  college,  appropriated  to 
the  students'  use,  for  which  there  is  an  extra  cliarge  of  <£21. 

These  terms  include  eTery  thing,  except  medical  attendance 
and  books. 

A  quarter's  notice  of  the  intention  to  remove  any  student, 
must  be  given  by  the  parent  or  guardian  to  the  principal,  or  a 
quarter's  fee  will  be  incurred.  Students  residing,  or  having 
their  names  on  the  books  for  any  part  of  a  quarter,  will  be 
charged  tiie  fee  for  the  whole  quarter.  The  college  quarter 
days  are  January  6,  April  6,  July  6,  October  6. 

The  college  diploma  or  certificate — which  admits  those  holding 
it  to  the  position  of  graduate,  under  the  title  of  member — is 
granted  only  to  those  who,  at  their  final  examination,  show 
that  they  are  thoroughly  masters  of  the  subjects  of  the  various 
lectures,  and  are,  besides,  well  acquainted  with  practical  agri- 
culture. Nor  is  this,  or  any  other  certificate,  granted  to 
students  whose  conduct  has  not  given  entire  satisfaction  to  the 
authorities.  The  names  of  the  members  appear  in  the  pros- 
pectus. 

Copies  of  a  set  of  examination  questions,  on  the  subjects  of 
one  session  or  half  year,  are  also  annexed.  As  these  questions 
are  all  taken  from  the  lectures  and^  practical  instruction 
previously  attended  by  the  students  examined,  they  are  well 
calculated  to  show  what  is  taught  at  tlie  college. 

A  scholarsliip  of  the  value  of  £40  per  annum,  and  tenable 
during  tliree  sessions,  is  given  to  the  first  man  in  each  session. 
Students  who  enter  at  the  quarter  are  allowed  to  compete  for 
this,  but  are  required  to  obtain  for  success  five  per  cent,  more 
marks. 

It  haj)pciied  to  be  vacation  wlien  I  arrived,  and  tlicrcfore  I 
had  not  the  good  fortune  to  see  so  much  of  the  practical  work- 
ings of  the  college,  as  I  should  have  been  glad  to  have  seen  ; 
still  I  visited  the  collections,  the  lecture  rooms,  the  lahoratory 
and  the  farm,  in  company  with  Dr.  Voelckerand  Prof.  Coleman, 


86      •  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

» 

the  manager  of  the  farm,  and  saw  the  wholo  system  adopted, 
as  well  as  could  be  expected  under  the  circumstances. 

The  farm  appeared  to  be  under  a  good  state  of  cultivation. 
All  the  labor  is  hired,  the  regular  farm  wages  being  seven  shil- 
lings a  week,  the  laborers  finding  themselves.  That  is  twenty- 
eight  cents  a  day.  Good  ploughmen  get  as  high  as  twelve  shil- 
lings a  week,  and  in  harvest  time  three  shillings  a  day. 

Tboy  had  about  500  sheep  at  the  time  I  was  there,  but  they 
usually  winter  about  700.  They  were  mostly  Cotswolds,  and 
looking  finely.  The  farm  buildings  are  of  stone,  plain  and 
substantial.  The  fattening  animals  are  kept  constantly  in 
boxes,  the  best  size  of  which,  it  is  thought  there,  is  9  feet  by  9, 
on  account  of  their  treading  the  manure  better  in  small  boxes. 
They  consider  the  Yorkshire  pigs  the  best  and  most  profital)le. 
Some  of  them  were  immensely  fat,  having  been  jireparcd  for 
the  Worcester  exhibition  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 

The  answer  to  the  question  why  they  got  them  so  fat  for  that 
purpose,  was  that  others  do,  and  they  are  obliged  to  conform  to 
the  practice  or  fail,  though  the  manager  appeared  to  disapprove 
of  the  practice. 

Among  the  crops  were  many  acres  of  horse  beans.  The 
yield  is  40  bushpls  per  acre,  56  lbs.  to  the  bushel,  and  one  ton 
of  straw..  Tliey  are  sown  at  the  rate  of  8  busliels  per  acre,  in 
drills  17  inches  apart.  They  grind  them  up,  and  give  them  to 
horses,  sheep,  &c.  The  wheat  was  at  its  full  growth,  and  look- 
ing very  well.  The  farm  horses  are  Clydesdales.  They  are 
large  and  very  useful  animals,  easily  kept  in  condition.  I  should 
think  they  would  weigh  from  1,200  to  1,400  lbs.  There  are 
various  facilities  for  work,  sucli  as  a  steam-engine,  which  does 
a  great  many  kinds  of  work,  like  threshing,  grinding,  winnow- 
ing, Ac.     There  is  also  a  blacksmith  shop  on  tlie  [ilace. 

Exj)erinients  were  being  carried  on  upon  the  wheat  fields 
upon  a  pretty  large  scale.  They  are  of  considerable  interest 
and  importance,  but  an  enumeration  of  them  would  lead  too 
far. 

The  following  questions  at  the  final  examination  for  the 
diploma,  will  indicate  the  nature  of  this  trial,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  course  of  instruction  which  had  been  pursued : — 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  •      87. 

Practical  Aguiculture. — First  Paper. 

1 .  Enumerate  the  crops  at  preseqt  growing  on  the  Royal  Agricultural 
College  Farm,  naming  that  which  each  field  bears,  or  is  being  prepared 
for,  and  the  acreage  in  each  crop,  as  nearly  as  you  can  recollect. 

2.  Describe  the  acts  of  husbandry  during  the  present  session,  in  lots 
Nos.  11,  19,  and  (3  and  5,)  and  the  objects  kept  in  view  in  each. 

3.  Describe  and  value  the  acts  of  husbandry  during  the  present  ses- 
sion in  lot  No.  8,  and  their  object.  State  generally  the  best  methods  of 
cleaning  (1)  strong  clays,  (2)  moderately  light  soils. 

4.  Describe  (very  bi'iefiy)  the  principal  implements  employed  on  the 
Royal  Agricultural  College  Farm,  and  give  a  catalogue  of  those  which  • 
would  usually  be  required  on  a  farm  of  400  acres  of  turnip  land. 

5.  Give  an  account  of  the  different  methods  of  planting  potatoes 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Illustrate  this  from  the  plan  adopted 
in  3  &  0 ;  enumerate  also  the  manures  used  for  this  crop  in  that  field, 
and  their  apparent  result  up  to  this  date. 

6.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  different  kinds  of  root  crops  ?  What 
soils,  what  climates  are  best  adapted  to  each  sort  respectively  ?  Show 
how  far  one  sort  of  root  crop  can  replace  another.  What  species  of 
root  will  best  take  the  place  of  an  early  spring  green  crop  ? 

7.  What  is  the  best  method  of  cultivating  barley  ?  How  would  you 
manage  the  previous  crop,  so  as  to  insure  a  good  seed  bed?  State  the 
quantity  of  seed,  and  the  soils  best  suited  to  this  crop. 

8.  Write  a  short  essay  on  parallel  drainage,  paying  attention  to — 
(1.)  Tlie  nature  of  the  soil  for  which  the  system  is  adopted. 
(2.)  Depth  and  frequency  of  drains. 

(o.)  Action  of  parallel  drainage. 

(4.)  General  cost,  and  the  return  that  may  be  expected  from  it. 

.  Second  Paper. 

1.  Explain  the  principles  and  use  of  the  liquid  manure  drill. 

2.  What  is  the  use  and  object  of  a  rotation  of  crops  ?  Describe  a 
three,  four,  and  five-field  course,  and  state  to  what  description  of  soil 
each  is  respectively  adapted.  Give  examples  when  you  can  from  the 
college  farm. 

3.  At  what  period  (1)  of  the  year,  (2)  of  the  rotation,  would  deep 
ploughing  be  advisable  ?  What  kinds  of  soil  does  it  beneiit,  and  when 
should  it  be  avoided  ? 

4.  Explain  the  functions  of  live  stock  on  a  farm.  What  effect  has 
turnip  husbandry  produced  on  the  meat-eating  population  of  this 
country? 


88      •  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

5.  State  briefly  a  few  particulars  relating  to  the  breed  of  short-horned 
cattle,  mentioning  any  remarkable  sales  or  favorite  lines  of  descent  of 
the  breed. 

6.  Of  what  component  parts  does  milk  consist?  Shew  the  use  of 
each  of  them  in  the  dairy. 

7.  Describe  the  j^cneral  management  of  the  fatting  and  breeding  flock 
during  the  present  session. 

1.  Explain  the  difference  in  posting  a  cash  and  a  credit  transaction, 
and  show  how  the  following  transactions  would  appear  in  your  Journal 
and  Ledger: — 

June  10,  1857,  Sold  Mr.  Thos.  White  28  qrs.  Wheat  at  50s. 

Bought  10  qrs.  Oats  of  JMr.  Jones,  at  2Gs.  and  paid  for  the  same. 

Received  from  the  Gloucestershire  Banking  Company  £123  5s. 

Hired  Thrashing  Machine  of  Mr.  Slatter,  3  days  at  25s. 

Inorf/anic   Chemistry. 

1.  Mention  the  preparation  and  properties  of  ammonia. 

2.  Describe  the  general  properties  of  ammoniacal  salts,  and  the  mode 
of  detecting  adulterations  in  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

3.  Mention  some  manuring  matters  which  owe  their  efficacy  to  the 
ammonia  they  contain. 

4.  How  do  you  ascertain  the  presence  of  ammonia  in  a  substance, 
and  how  do  you  determine  it  quantitatively? 

5.  Give  a  short  'definition  of  the  following  terms  : — alkali,  base,  acid, 
salt,  metal,-  metalloid,  neutral,  basic,  mineral,  organic,  combination,  mix- 
ture, soluble,  volatile,  and  fix. 

6.  State  in  a  general  way  the  composition  of  mountain  limestone, 
cornbrash,  forest  marble,  and  lias-lime  and  magnesian  limestone,  and 
their  relative  agricultural  value. 

7.  IIow  much  oil  of  vitriol  must  be  added  to  1  ton  of  bone-ash  in 
order  to  render  all  the  phosphate  of  lime  in  it  soluble  ? 

Composition  of  commercial  bone-ash  : — 


Moisture,      .     .     . 

.       6.05 

Organic  matter, 

.       1.03 

Equiv. 

of  Ca=28 

Phosphate  of  lime, 

.     75.81 

li 

"  P=32 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

.       7.04 

« 

"    S=16 

Sand, 

.       9.88 

Alkaline  Salts,  .     . 

.16 

100.00 

8.  How  do  you  detect   the  presence  of  alum  in  bread  ? 

9.  Describe  the  preparation  and  properties  of  alumina. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  '   '        89 

tt . 

10.  A  liquid  contains  soluble  phosphate  of  lime,  gypsum,  and  sulphate 
of  ammonia ;  how  can  you  recognize  these  compounds  ? 

Organic   Chemistry. 

1.  Explain  the  following  terms: — decay,  fermentation,  and  putre- 
faction. 

2.  In  what  respects  do  organic  acids  differ  from  mineral  acids,  alka- 
loids from  alkalies  ? 

3.  Mention  the  proximate  and  ultimate  constituents  of  wheat,  pota- 
toes, turnips,  clover,  pease,  and  cabbage. 

4.  State  the  composition  of  woody  fibre,  gun-cotton,  starch,  milk- 
sugar,  lactic  acid,  and  cane-sugar. 

5.  What  are  the  changes  which  organic  matters,  containing  nitrogen, 
undergo  during  putrefaction  ? 

6.  What  is  the  chemical  constitution  of  fatty  matters  ? 

7.  Describe  the  preparation  and  properties  of  urea. 

8.  Mention  the  adulterations  which  are  sometimes  found  in  milk,  and 
the  mode  of  detecting  them. 

9.  Write  a  paper  on  the  chemistry  of  brewing. 

Agricultural  Chemistry. 

1.  What  are  the  sources  from  which  plants  derive  their  nitrogen  and 
carbon  ? 

2.  When  is  it  desirable  to  preserve  as  much  as  possible  the  organic 
matter  in  soils,  and  when  may  it  be  destroyed  without  injury  to  the  land  ? 

3.  How  do  you  ascertain  the  commercial  and  how  the  practical  value 
of  manuring  matters  ? 

4.  What  is  the  composition  of  blood-manure  ? 

5.  Describe  the  preparation  and  properties  of  a  good  super-phosphate, 
and  give  reasons  why  it  is  more  economical  to  l5uy  this  manure  than  to 
prepare  it  on  the  farm. 

6.  AVrite  a  paper  on  guano,  stating  the  properties  and  composition  of 
good  Peruvian  and  of  inferior  guano,  the  adulterations  in  guano,  the  mode 
of  detecting  them,  and  the  crops  most  benefited  by  guano. 

7.  What  is  the  composition  of  liquid  manure  and  its  agricultural 
value  ? 

8.  Can  sewage  economically  be  converted  into  a  portable  manure  ? 
Give  reasons. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology. 

1.  What  general  principle  should  regulate  the  breeder  of  stock  in  the 
selection  of  animals  for  that  purpose  ? 

2.  What  diseases  are  likely  to  be  transmitted  from  parents  to  off- 
spring ? 

12 


90  .  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

I 

Describe  the  general  anatomy  of  the  foot,  remarking  on  the  differences 

in  the  organ  of  ox,  sheep,  dog,  and  pig,  as  compared  with  the  horse ; 
concluding  with  a  consideration  of  the  principles  of  shoeing,  as  .appli- 
cable to  the  colt  as  well  as  to  the  adult  horse  in  active  work. 

Pathology. 

"Write  a  description  of  the  disease  of  diarrhoea  occurring  in  horses, 
oxen,  and  sheep ;  including  the  subjects  of  causation ;  the  elements  of 
the  disease,  symptoms,  stages,  and  results,  with  the  principles  on  which 
the  treatment  should  be  founded ;  explaining  the  variations  in  practice 
in  the  several  cases  of  the  horse,  ox,  and  sheep. 

Describe  the  following  diseases  of  the  foot : — corn,  quittor,  foot-rot, 
foul,  and  canker;  pointing  out  the  causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment; 
explaining  the  consequences  of  each  affection,  probable  duration,  and 
influence  on  the  animal's  soundness. 

Geology. 

1,  Give  an  account  of  the  geology  of  phosphatic  deposits,  as  they 
occur  in  the  different  stratified  rocks  of  England. 

2.  Describe  the  English  new  red  sandstone  formation,  having  partic- 
ular reference  to  the  following  points : 

I.  Its  geological  and  geographical  position. 
II.  Its  subdivisions  and  their  characters. 

III.  Its  minerals  and  economic  materials. 

IV.  Its  fossil  contents. 

V.  The  importance  of  a  correct  knowledge  of  this  rock 
in  a  coal  diagnosis. 

The  spirit  of  caste  so  prevalent  in  England  has  probably  been 
the  cause  of  the  faihire  of  this  college  to  meet  the  expectations 
of  tlie  friends  of  agriculture,  or  to  commend  itself  to  any  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  people.  I  could  not  learn  that  it  was 
popular  with  any  class.  They  are  waiting  for  something  to 
"  turn  up,"  but  in  the  meantime  an  enormous  debt  hangs  like 
an  incubus  upon  the  college.     Its  future  is  therefore  doubtful. 

THE   ALBERT   MODEL    FARM,    GLASNEVIN. 

The  Albert  National  Agricultural  Institution,  near  Dublin, 
was  the  first  that  I  visited.  I  had  landed  at  Queenstown, 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  something  of  the  system 
adopted  in  these  institutions  in  Ireland,  and  after  visiting  Cork 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  91 

and  Kerry,  which  lie  on  the  way,  I  lost  no  time  in  introducing 
myself  to  Dr.  Kirkpatrick,  the  chief  inspector  of  agricultural 
national  schools  in  that  country.  His  head-quarters  are  at  the 
Albert  model  farm.  Through  his  kindness  I  was  very  soon 
put  in  the  way  of  whatever  information  I  might  need,  both  in 
regard  to  the  practical  working  of  tlic  school  at  Glasnevin,  and 
the  farm  on  which  it  is  located,  and  in  yegard  to  the  system  of 
agricultural  instruction  throughout  the  country. 

Among  other  things  placed  in  my  hands,  was  a  little  hand- 
book of  the  model  farm,  by  Thomas  Baldwin,  the  lecturer  on 
agriculture  there,  and  from  this  I  condense  a  good  many  of  the^ 
following  facts  relating  to  the  buildings,  the  farm,  the  crops, 
&c.:— 

This  institution  was  established  in  1838  by  the  Board  of 
National  Education  in  Ireland,  and  is  designed  to  supply  such 
instruction  in  the  science  and  practice  of  agriculture  as  will 
qualify  young  men  for  becoming  farmers,  land-stewards  and 
teachers  of  agriculture. 

The  institution,  which  stands  upon  the  farm,  is  about  three 
statute  miles  from  the  city  of  Dublin,  and  but  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  Royal  Dublin  Society's  beautiful  botanic  gar- 
dens, which  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  village  of 
Glasnevin,  which  has  a  historic  interest  from  the  fact  of  its 
having  been  the  residence  of  Addison,  Delany,  &c. 

The  building,  which  is  massive,  but  without  architectural 
beauty,  comprises  dormitories,  dining  and  school  rooms,  library 
and  laboratory,  in  addition  to  apartments  for  resident  officers  of 
the  institution,  and  a  considerable  range  of  farm  offices. 

Tlie  ground  attached  to  the  Albert  institution  is  appropriated 
as  follows : — 

For  farm  purposes,    .... 
Gardens  and  pleasure  grounds. 


A.        R. 

169     1 
10     0 

p. 

2 

22 

179     1 

24 

Two  classes  of  pupils  attend  this  institution,  viz.  : — 
1st.  Externs,  or  non-resident  pupils,  who  board  and  lodge  at 
their  own  expense,  within  reasonable  distance  of  the  model  farm, 
and   who   are   admitted  on    the  following  terms  :■     First,  that 


92  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

each  pays  an  entrance  fee  of  two  guineas ;  second,  that  they 
engage  in  the  ordinary  farm  work ;  third,  that  they  attend  the 
lectures  punctually ;  fourth,  that  they  be  amenable  to  all  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  institution. 

2d.  Interns,  or  young  men  who  intend  to  become  land-stew- 
ards or  working  farmers,  and  who  are  boarded,  lodged  and 
educated  at  the  public  expense  for  a  period  of  two  years. 

In  June,  1860,  the  commissioners  decided  that  admission  to 
this  class  shall,  in  future  be  obtained  by  competitive  examina- 
tion. 

A  candidate  is  expected  to  possess  the  following  qualifica- 
tions : — 

1st.  A  certificate  from  a  clergyman  of  his  religious  persua- 
sion, testifying  as  to  his  moral  character. 

2d.  A  certificate  from  a  medical  man,  testifying  tliat  he  is  of 
sound  health. 

3d.  His  age  must  not  be  under  seventeen. 

When  the  parents,  guardian  or  patron  of  a  lad  decide  on 
seeking  permission  for  him  to  compete,  they  communicate  with 
the  secretaries  of  the  Board,  who,  in  reply,  furnish  a  blank  form, 
containing  a  number  of  queries  and  forms  of  certificate,  all  of 
which  must  be  duly  filled,  and  returned. 

If  the  applicant*is  deemed  eligible,  he  is  entered  on  the  list 
of  candidates  for  the  approaching  examination,  of  the  time  and 
plac^of  which  due  notice  is  given. 

As  it  has  been  decided  to  admit  pupils  in  the  beginning  of 
January  and  of  June  each  year,  the  examinations  take  place  in 
May  and  December. 

In  January,  1861,  for  example,  thirty-four  candidates  were 
admitted  by  competitive  examination.  The  mode  of  conducting 
the  examinations  was  as  follows  : — 

Seventy-four  candidates  having  been  found  eligible  for  com- 
petition, were  summoned  to  attend  on  a  given  day  and  hour  at 
the  residences  of  the  inspectors  of  national  schools  in  their 
respective  districts. 

The  candidates  were  then  subjected  to  a  written  and  oral 
examination  for  a  fixed  time  in  the  following  subjects  : — 

Reading-. — To  read  with  correctness  any  passage  selected  in 
the  Fourth  Book  of  Lessons. 

Wrilinir. — To  write  a  letiiible  hand  with  facilitv. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  93 

Spelling. — To  write  from  dictation,  with  correctness  any  pas- 
sage selected  from  the  Third  Book  of  Lessons. 

Grammar. — To  know  the  parts  of  speech,  and  to  possess  such 
an  elementary  knowledge  of  syntax  as  to  be  able  to  parse  short 
and  easy  sentences  in  prose.  " 

Geography. — To  be  able  to  define  the  technical  terms  of 
geography,  to  know  the  general  outlines  of  the  map  of  the 
world,  and  the  boundaries,  counties,  chief  towns,  rivers,  «fec.,  of 
Ireland. 

Arithmetic. — To  be  able  to  repeat  with  accuracy,  or  write  out 
the  several  arithmetical  tables,  and  to  work  with  facility  and 
accuracy  easy  questions  in  the  elementary  rules,  fractions,  sim- 
ple proportion  and  practice. 

Book-keeping. — To  be  acquainted  with  the  nature  and  use  of 
a  cash  account. 

Geometry. — To  know  at  least  the  first  book  of  Euclid. 

The  questions  and  the  time  allowed  for  answering  them  being 
the  same  in  each  case,  the  examination  was  as  strictly  competi- 
tive as  if  the  boys  were  congregated  in  one  room. 

All  the  papers  were  transmitted  to  Dublin,  and  fifty  of  the 
best  answerers  summoned  up  to  Glasnevin,  and  there  subjected 
to  a  secondhand  more  searching  examination  in  the  subjects  fol- 
lowing : — 

Pleading. — As  in  number  one.  ., 

Writing. — Ditto . 

Spelling. — To  write  from  dictation,  with  correctness,  any 
passage  selected  from  the  Fourth  Book  of  Lessons. 

Grammar. — To  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  text  of  Sulli- 
van's Grammar,  and  to  be  able  to  parse  easy  sentences  in  prose 
from  the  Fourth  Book  of  Lessons. 

Geography. — As  in  number  one,  with  the  general  geography 
of  Europe. 

Arithmetic. — Reduction,  decimals,  fractions,  simple  propor- 
tion and  practice. 

Book-keeping. — To  be  acquainted  with  sets  L  to  lY.,  in  the 
Board's  book-keeping. 

Geometry. — As  in  number  one. 

Agricultural  Chemistry. — Hodge's  First  Lessons  in  Agricul- 
tural Chemistry. 


94 


BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Practical  Agriculture. — Introduction  to  Agricultural  Class- 
Book,  and  chapters  XL,  XIL,  XIII.,  of  Murphy's  Agricultural 
Instructor.  * 

The  business  of  the  institution  and  farm  is  conducted  by  the 
following  staff: — 

1.  The  superintendent.  Dr.  Kirkpatrick,  (who  has  the  entire 
management  of  the  concern,)  training  and  farming  departments. 

2.  A  matron. 

3.  An  agriculturist,  who  has  charge  of  the  practical  manage- 
ment of  the  farm. 

4.  A  gardener,  who  conducts  the  horticultural  department. 

5.  A  literary  teacher. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  is  a  staff  of  non-resident  lecturers, 
viz. :  on 

1.  Animal  physiology  and  pathology,  and  the  treatment  of 
the  diseases  of  the  domestic  amimals. 

2.  Botany  and  vegetable  physiology,  in  their  relation  to  agri- 
culture. 

3.  Chemistry  and  geology,  in  their  relation  to  agriculture. 

4.  Agriculture. 

5.  Horticulture. 

Each  of  the  officers  gives  two  courses  of  lectures  in  the  year, 
which  is  divided  into  two  sessions  ;  the  first  session  begins 
after  Christmas  and  ends  in  June,  and  the  second  ends  at 
Christmas. 

At  the  termination  of  each  session,  the  lecturers  hold  exam- 
inations, and  award  premiums  to  the  most  deserving  pupils, 
accordino;  to  the  following;  scale : — 


.£      s.       d. 


1st.  Chemistry, 

Ditto,     .... 
2il.  Botany,      .... 

Ditto,     .... 
3il.  Animal  physiology  and  disease 
of  farm  animals,    . 

Ditto,     .... 
4th,  Horticulture,    . 

Ditto,     .... 
5tli.  Literary  subjects, 

l^itto,     .... 


.     2  Trizes 

at  1 

10 

0 

2        " 

0 

0— 

5 

0 

0 

2       " 

10 

0 

.     2 

0 

0— 

5 

0 

0 

2        " 

10 

0 

.     2 

0 

0— 

5 

0 

0 

.     2       " 

10 

0 

2        " 

0 

0— 

0 

0 

0 

2        " 

10 

0 

2        " 

0 

0— 

0 

0 

0 

SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  95 


£      s. 

d. 

^ricultur 

e,  1st  Prize, 

3     0 

0 

Ditto, 

2  Second  Prizes, 

.       at  2  10 

0 

Ditto, 

3  Tiiird         " 

.       at  2     0 

0 

Ditto, 

4  Fourth       « 

.       at  1  10 

0 

Ditto, 

5  Fifth 

.       at  1     0 

0—25     0     0 
£50    0    0 

No  pupil  can  take  more  than  three  prizes*  in  one  session. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  said  to  be  more  comprehensive 
and  complete  than  that  afforded  at  any  similar  institution. 

The  literary  masters  teach  English  grammar,  and  compo- 
sition, arithmetic,  book-keeping,  and  mathematics,  including 
land-surveying,  levelling,  and  mapping. 

The  instruction  in  agriculture  embraces  all  those  branches 
which  constitute  the  science  of  farming,  as  well  as  a  detailed 
account  of  the  enlightened  and  improved  practices  of  the  day ; 
and  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  become  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  improved  practical  husbandry,  they  are  called  upon  to 
take  part  in  the  performance  of  every  farm  operation,  and  the 
feeding  and  management  of  live  stock.  They  have  an  oppor- 
tunity, too,  of  practically  studying  the  application  of  steam 
power  to  agricultural  purposes,  as  well  as  the  use  of  a  large 
assortment  of  those  modern  implements  and  machines,  which 
are  found  economical  substitutes  for  manual  labor. 

The  Farms  and  Gardens. — The  soil  is  a  clay  loam  of  a 
brownish  color,  resting  on  the  calcareous  formation  ;  its  maxi- 
mum elevation  is  172  feet,  minimum,  148  feet ;  and  the  greater 
portion  of  it  has  a  slight  inclination  to  the  south.  Tlie  depth 
of  the  surface  soil  averages  from  eight  to  twelve  inches. 

Dr.  Hodges'  examination  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  gives  the 
following  results : — 

Soil.        Subsoil. 
On  mechanical  examination  every  100  parts  contained 

clay  and  finely  divided  matter,        ....     24.71       28.32 

Sand  and  small  stones,       ......     75.29       71.G8t 


100.00     100.00 

*  A  silver  medal  is  awarded,  each  session,  to  the  most  talented  and  deserving 
pupil. 

t  Consisting  of  coarse  granules  of  blackish  limestone,  gray  chert,  and  cal- 
careous sand. 


96 


BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Every  1,000  parts  of  surface  soil  retained  688  parts  ;  of  sub- 
soil, 48-4  parts  of  water. 

Of  the  water  which  the  specimens  had  imbibed,  in  four  hours 
the  surface  soil  lost  by  evaporation  17.8 ;  the  subsoil  30.6  per 
cent. 

I.  The  Large  Farm,  145a.  3r.  37p.,  is  divided  into  four 
sections,  on  each  of  which  a  distinct  course  of  farming  is  pur- 
sued, as  follows : — 

Area. 


a  Three  Course  Rotation,  about 
a.  Four         "  "  " 

b  Five         "  "  " 

c  New  Farm,  Wheat, 

"  Pasturage,    . 


14 

37 


21 

36 
25 

51 


Yards  and  OOlces,  Paddock,  &c.,  occupy  the  remainder. 


The  order  of  succession  of  the  crops  in  the  three  course 
rotation  is : — 

1st  year,  Green  crops,  manured. 

2d  year,  Grain,  with  Italian  rye-grass,  and  clover. 

3d  year.  Grass,  for  soiling  and  hay. 

In  the  fourth  course,  usually  called  the  "  Norfolk  Shift,"  the 
crops  succeed  in  this  order : — 

1st  year.  Green  crops,  manured. 

2d  year.  Grain,  with  grass  seeds,  generally  Italian  rye-grass. 

3d  year.  Grass,  for  house-feeding  cattle,  and  hay. 

4th  year,  Oats. 

The  five  course  on  this  farm  differs  from  the  last  in  keeping 
the  grass  field  unbroken  a  second  year.  The  crops,  therefore, 
succeed  in  this  order  : — 

1st  year,  Green  crops,  manured. 

2d  year,  Grain,  with  grass  seeds. 

od  year.  Grass. 

4th  year.  Grass. 

5th  year,  Oats. 

The  balance-sheet  has  been  satisfactory,  showing  a  credit  of 
from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds  a  year  in  favor  of 
the  pupils'  labor. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  97 

II.  The  Small  Farm,  23a.  1r.  5p.,  was  established  in  1856, 
for  the  purpose  of  aflfording  an  illustration  of  small  farm  man- 
agement, and  to  present  to  the  sons  of  small  farmers  an  example 
which  they  may  imitate. 

The  following  five  course  rotation  is  carried  out  on  this 
farm : — 

1st.  Turnips,  Mangel  Wurzel,  and  Carrots. 

2d.  Potatoes,  Winter  Beans,  and  Cabbages. 

3d.  Italian  rye-grass. 

4th.     "  « 

5th.  Oats. 

The  Italian  rye-grass  is  sown  in  autumn,  immediately  after 
the  harvesting  of  the  potatoes  and  beans,  and  a  most  luxuriant 
crop  is  thus  obtained.  This  season  they  had  grass  three  feet 
long,  and  yielding  ten  tons  per  statute  acre  on  this  farm  early 
in  May.  Italian  rye-grass  has  been  sown  on  the  Albert  Farm 
in  autumn,  after  grain  ;  but  though  every  care  has  been  taken 
to  have  the  ground  properly  prepared  by  the  use  of  Bentall's 
broad-share,  grubbing,  &c.,  yet  the  following  crop  of  grass  has 
not  been  quite  satisfactory. 

Some  are  not  favorable  to  two  years'  growth  of  Italian  rye- 
grass unless  where  there  is  an  unlimited  command  of  liquid 
manure  or  frequent  top  dressings  of  the  artificial  manures. 
This  grass  is  a  gross  feeder ;  and  when  it  grows  luxuriantly  the 
first  year,  it  degenerates  in  the  second,  not  so  much  from 
the  habits  of  the  grass  itself  as  from  want  of  nutriment  in  the 
soil. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  pecuniary  results  of  the  working 
of  this  farm  are  more  favorable  than  those  of  the  larger  one. 
There  is  a  balance  of  X70  lis.  5id.  after  allowing  the  sum  of 
X42  7s.  8d.  (at  tlie  rate  of  X2  5s.  per  statute  acre,)  for  the 
pupils'  labor. 

III.  The  IIorticultural  Department  consists  of  a  kitchen 
and  a  fruit  garden,  and  a  small  range  of  glass,  including  a 
vinery,  peach  house,  and  conservatory.  On  the  south  side  of 
the  buildings  there  is  a  neatly  laid  out  pleasure-ground.  Tliese 
various  branches  of  this  department  afford  to  those  pupils  who 
have  a  taste  for  gardening  an  opportunity  of  qualifying  them- 
selves for  discharging   the   combined   duties   of  steward   and 

13 


98  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

gardener — duties  which,  from   motives   of  economy,  are  now 
frequently  imposed  on  one  individual. 

The  Farm  Buildings. — The  visitor  generally  enters  this  large 
pile  of  buildings  by  an  archway  on  the  south  side,  leading  into 
a  yard  124  by  93  feet.  In  the  centre  of  this  yard  is  a  solid  two- 
story  house,  stabling  and  harness-room  for  six  horses  occupying 
the  north  side  of  the  ground  floor,  the  south  side  being  appro- 
priated to  carts  and  implements.  The  second  floor  serves  as  a 
granary  and  store  rooms.  When  this  new  range  of  ofTices  was 
about  half  erected,  the  commissioners  took  advantage  of  a 
favorable  opportunity  that  presented  itself  for  enlarging  the 
farm ;  and  having  to  extend  the  amount  of  accommodation  for 
live  stock,  they  had  to  alter  their  plans.  For  instance,  the 
building  now  occupied  as  a  cattle  barii  was  originally  intended 
to  serve  as  a  barn  and  stable,  and  the  interior  still  bears  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  a  division  wall. 

The  portion  of  this  building  appropriated  to  implements,  <fec., 
is  13  feet  wide  by  53  long.  There  are  four  paved  ways  for  carts, 
dividing  it  transversely.  The  wheels  run  on  cut  limestone 
stones  embedded  in  the  paving,  and  having  shoulders  which 
serve  as  guides  for  the  wheels.  These  shoulders  or  guides  are 
five  feet  apart. 

The  stables  are  10  feet  6  inches  high ;  front  to  back  wall  is 
15  feet ;  the  stalls  are  each  six  feet  wide,  so  that  the  cubical 
contents  appropriated  to  each  animal  is  945  feet,  which  would 
be  rather  limited  without  efficient  ventilation. 

The  hay  rack  is  beneath  the  horse's  head.  It  rises  3  feet  3 
inches  above  the  floor,  and  is  1  foot  6  inches  wide.  This  plan 
is  now  generally  preferred  to  having  the  hay  over  the  animals' 
heads. 

The  dimensions  of  the  oat  manger  are  2  feet  2  inches  by  1 
foot  6  inches  l)y  1  foot.  The  partitions  consist  of  wooden  boards 
kept  fast  by  metal  rails  attached  to  the  front  wall  (7  feet  3 
inches  from  the  ground)  and  to  metal  cylindrical  posts  (at  the 
height  of  4  feet  G  inches  from  the  floor)  which  are  9  feet  from 
the  front  wall.  Over  the  animals'  heads  is  a  perforated 
sheet  of  zinc,  for  permitting  the  escape  of  vitiated  air.  Fresh 
air  is  admitted  through  tiie  doors  and  windows.  The  upper 
half  of  the  windows  is  couj^tructed,  in  the  orilinary  way,  of  g-la.sfc 
panes,  and  moves  ui)on  a  pivot.     The  lower  half  consists  of  two 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  99 

sets  of  spars,  2|  inches  wide  and  2i  inches  apart ;  the  outer 
being  fixed  ;  the  inner  slides  right  and  left,  so  that  the  admis- 
sion of  air  is  simply  regulated  by  the  inner  slide. 

The  stable  doors  are  4  feet  wide,  and  like  those  of  the  barns, 
slide  flush  with  the  wall,  on  rails  ;  and  to  facilitate  the  move- 
ment, they  are  provided  with  castors  running  on  the  rails,  and 
small  wheels  on  both  sides  near  the  top. 

The  building  facing  the  east  side  of  the  yard  is  tlie  cattle 
barn,  which  is  capable  of  accommodating  52  head  of  cattle.  It 
is  98  feet  long  by  32  wide.  There  are  two  rows  of  cattle  facing 
each  other,  and  separated  by  a  feeding  passage  6  feet  wide  run- 
ning the  whole  length  of  the  building.  This  passage  is  lined 
on  either  side  with  cast  metal  rails  or  lattice  work,  which  rise 

2  feet  above  the  troughs,  and  are  attached  to  the  cast-iron 
partitions.  The  space  from  the  feeding  passage  to  the  side 
walls  is  appropriated  thus : — Stand  (to  channel)  8  feet ;  chan- 
nel, 14  inches  wide  (and  4  inches  deep)  ;  passage  behind 
animals,  3  feet  10  inches.  The  stalls  are  double,  i.  e.,  the  space 
between  each  pair  of  partitions  is  for  two  animals.  The  parti- 
tions in  the  southern  half  of  the  building  are  7  feet  apart,  which 
gives  3  feet  6  inches  as  the  width  of  each  lair.  In  the  northern 
half,  generally  occupied  by  the  smaller  breeds  and  young  stock, 
the  partitions  are  6  feet  apart,  which  gives  each  animal  a  space 

3  feet  wide. 

The  feeding  troughs  are  made  of  slate  slabs.  The  side  slabs 
incline  outwards,  particularly  the  front  one.  The  dimensions 
are — Front,  16  inches ;  back,  12  inches  ;  width  at  bottom,  12 
inches  ;  top  of  front  to  that  of  back  slab,  21  inches. 

The  channels  behind  the  animals  have  been  constructed  in  a 
very  substantial  manner.  Perforated  cast-iron  plates  cover  a 
conduit  of  granite,  semi-circular  at  the  bottom,  and  liaving 
several  openings  communicating  with  a  very  copious  liquid 
manure  tank.  AVhen  it  is  desirable  to  remove  any  sediment 
that  may  collect  in  the  conduit,  the  cast-iron  plates  are  removed. 
The  feeding  and  other  passages  are  paved  with  granite.  The 
cattle  floors  on  one  side  of  the  barn  are  paved  with  brick,  hav- 
ing a  fall  of  an  inch  and  a  half;  on  the  other  side  the  flooring 
consists  of  wooden  spars  nine  inches  wide  and  scparate<l  liy  one- 
inch  interstices.     About  six  inches  beneath  those  spars  is  a  solid 


100  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

floor  of  flags  set  in  mortar,  with  a  considerable  fall  towards  one 
point,  or  sink  for  carrying  off"  the  urine. 

The  barn  is  well  ventilated  by  large  Louvre  ventilators  placed 
in  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  Fresh  air  is  admitted,  and  particularly 
about  the  cows'  heads,  by  the  following  contrivance :  Under 
the  feeding  passage  is  a  channel  communicating  with  the 
external  air  at  two  points — at  the  south  end  wall,  and  at  the 
open  shed  facing  the  stack-yard,  and  in  which  the  root  washer 
is  fixed.  This  underground  air  channel  has  several  branches 
rising  to  the  surface  of  tlie  feeding  passage,  and  which  are 
covered  with  perforated  pieces  of  metal.  Fresh  air  rises 
through  these  openings  when  the  slide  in  the  south  end  of  the 
house  is  lifted. 

At  the  rear  of  the  barn  is  the  manure  yard.  Tiie  site  imme- 
diately occupied  with  manure  is  8G  by  53  feet ;  and  between 
the  manure  heap  and  the  barn  is  the  receptacle  for  liquid 
manure.  Tiiis  consists  of  a  large  tank  divided  by  a  partition 
into  two  compartments,  each  40  feet  long,  8  feet  wide,  and  9 
feet  high  to  the  spring  of  the  arch.  One  compartment  receives 
the  urine  from  stables,  barn,  calf-pens,  and  piggeries  ;  the  other 
receives  the  liquid  from  the  urinals,  water-closets,  wash-rooms, 
(fee. 

Tlie  bottom  and  sides  of  this  tank  were  built  of  brick,  lined 
with  two  coats  of  Portland  cement ;  and  a  strong  brick  arch 
covers  it. 

A  wooden  shed,  roofed  with  felt,  has  been  erected  against  the 
east  wall  of  the  manure  court  to  accommodate  young  stock. 
The  length  of  the  stands  (8  feet)  is  the  same  as  in  the  large 
barn  already  described.  This  shed  is  63  feet  long  and  12^  feet 
wide. 

The  piggeries-  are  placed  on  the  north  side  of  the  manure 
yard.  Tliere  are  six  sties  with  a  southern  aspect,  each  10  feet 
6  inches  by  7  feet,  witli  yards  16  feet  by  7  feet.  Torr's  patent 
troughs  are  used.  They  are  rather  expensive  ;  but  the  princi- 
ple, (which  is  a  good  one,)  can  be  easily  applied  in  the  case  of 
ordinary  troughs. 

Piggery  No.  2,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  range,  and  at 
right  angles  to  the  others,  is  arranged  precisely  like  the  calf- 
pens.  There  is  a  central  passage  5  feet  wide,  on  each  side  of 
which  are  eight  pens  or  sties,  each   being  6  feet  by  6  feet  9 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  101 

inches.  The  sparred  flooring  was  introduced  in  this  house  with 
more  success  than  in  the  barn,  the  spars  being  8  inches  wide 
and  I  of  an  inch  apart:  but  litter  cannot  altogether  be  dis- 
pensed with.  Some  look  upon  this  mode  of  housing  pigs  as 
objectionable,  and  at  variance  with  that  well-known  instinct  of 
the  pig  which  induces  it  to  keep  its  lair  free  fom  its  dung. 
At  Glasnevin,  pigs  thrive  very  well  in  this  piggery,  particularly 
fattening  pigs. 

Over  one  side  of  this  piggery  mixed  breeds  of  poultry  are 
kept ;  the  heat  evolved  from  the  pigs  keeps  up  the  proper  tem- 
perature in  winter.  On  the  other  hand,  this  arrangement  was 
objected  to  on  the  ground  that  the  air,  which  is  occasionally 
unavoidably  unpleasant,  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  health  of 
the  poultry,  but  experience  has  shown  this  not  to  be  the  case, 
which,  however,  may  be  attributed  to  the  effective  ventilation 
of  the  house. 

A  covered  stair  or  passage  rises  from  the  manure  yard  on  the 
one  side,  and  from  the  stack-yard  on  the  other,  by  means  of 
which  the  poultry  ascend  or  descend  at  pleasure.  Strange  fowls 
require  a  little  training  to  induce  them  to  reach  their  roosting 
and  laying  apartments,  but  it  is  interesting  to  witness  how 
soon  they  become  accustomed  to  their  ascents  and  descents. 

Immediately  adjoining  the  piggeries  is  the  calf-house,  21  feet 
2  inches  by  11  feet  3  inches,  apportioned  as  follows  :  Passage, 
5  feet  wide,  dividing  six  pens  into  two  rows  ;  each  pen  is  8  feet 
2  inches  long  by  3  feet  9  inches  wide.  In  an  angle  of  each  pen 
is  a  small  rack  for  hay. 

After  inspecting  the  calf-pens,  the  visitor  next  passes  along 
the  open  passage  north  of  the  barn  and  leading  to  the  steaming 
shed,  which  is  44  feet  by  16  feet.  The  feeding  passage  in  the 
barn  faces  the  doorway  of  this  apartment.  Metal  vats  were 
also  used  ;  but  having  lasted  four  years,  they  have  been 
replaced  by  two  fixed  wooden  ones,  for  preparing  linseed,  bar- 
ley, bean,  or  oatmeal  gruel,  and  a  galvanized  metal  one,  wliich 
turns  on  pivots,  and  is  used  for  steaming  roots.  The  latter  is 
placed  over  a  sunk  trough,  in  which  the  steamed  ingredients 
are  mixed.  This  trough  is  9  feet  long,  3  feet  6  inclies  wide, 
and  two  feet  deep,  and  is  lined  with  cement.  The  wooden  vats 
are  2  feet  9  inches  diameter  and  3  feet  4  inches  deep.  The 
metal  one  is  about  the  same  size.     In  one  corner  of  this  shed  is 


102  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

a  larger  wooden  trough,  in  which  alternate  layers  of  cut  straw, 
roots,  hean-mcal,  and  oil  cake  are  steamed  for  the  milch  cows 
in  winter.  It  is  13  feet  3  inches  long  5  feet  4  inches  wide,  and 
3  feet  high.  A  perforated  pipe,  communicating  with  the  boiler, 
is  laid  on  the  l)ottom,  and  by  turning  a  cock,  the  steam  ascends 
througli  the  mass  and  ''  cooks  "  it.  At  an  elevation  of  nine  feet 
there  is  a  pipe  perforated  on  the  lower  side,  in  communication 
with  the  water  cistern,  and  by  which  an  artificial  shower  can  be 
made  to  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  steaming  mess,  and  the 
ascending  steam  is  thus  condensed,  and  its  escape  prevented. 
Damaged  hay,  Ac,  is  rendered  agreeable  to  the  cattle  by  this 
process.  Bean  straw,  when  steamed,  is  also  readily  eaten  by 
cattle. 

Turnip  cutters  are  placed  in  this  shed.  Tliere  is  a  double- 
action  machine  for  cattle  and  sheep.  This  is  an  excellent 
machine.  A  pulping  machine  is  also  used,  and  works  very 
efficiently.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  teeth  arranged  spirally 
around  a  cylinder,  revolving  on  its  horizontally-placed  axis. 
Tiie  teeth  pass  between  a  revolving  spiral,  which  prevents  the 
machine  from  choking.  A  shaft,  driven  by  the  steam-engine, 
runs  through  the  steaming  shed,  and  if  the  engine  is  at  work 
tliere  is  a  piece  of  machinery  partly  at  work  in  this  shed,  and 
partly  in  the  open  shed  adjoining  it,  and  facing  the  stack-yard. 
In  this  latter  shed  is  a  root-washer  made  of  wood,  and  consist- 
ing of  a  frame  containing  water,  in  whicli  revolves  a  skeleton 
cylinder,  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  the  frustrum  of  a  cone,  the 
taper  being  scarcely  precipitate.  At  one  end  the  roots  are  put 
into  the  cylinder,  and  an  Archimedian  screw  at  the  other  end 
raises  and  throws  them  on  an  inclined  plane,  whence  they  fall 
on  the  elevator,  (formed  of  curved  bars  fixed  to  a  leatlier  belt 
kept  revolving,)  and  which  carries  them  to  the  steam-driven 
root-cutter.  The  cut  slices  fall  into  a  wooden  trough  beneath 
the  cutting  machine  in  the  steaming  shed. 

The  next  apartment  is  the  chalT-cutting  room,  thirty  feet  by 
sixteen.  Here  is  an  oil-cake  bruiser,  an  oat  bruiser  and  a 
straw-cutter.  Of  straw-cutters  tliere  is  a  great  variety ;  some 
cutting  continuously,  others  giving  an  intermittent  cut ;  some 
having  knives  attached  to  a  disc  or  wheel,  revolving  in  a  vertical 
plane  ;  in  others  the  knives  are  attached  to  a  revolving  cylinder, 
and  others  at>;ain  have  the  cuttinui:  blade  oscillatino;  verticallv. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  •  103 

The  revolving  cylinder  is  preferred  by  some  of  the  most  compe- 
tent judges. 

Leaving  this  room,  we  pass  on  to  the  barn,  the  gable  end  of 
which  faces  the  stables. 

The  ground  floor  of  this  building  consists  of:  (1)  mill  room, 
(2)  steam-engine  room,  (3)  corn  barn,  or  room  for  storing,  &c., 
and  which  is  41  i  by  21 1  feet.  On  the  second  floor,  14  feet 
from  the  first,  are — (1)  the  threshing  room  (same  dimensions 
as  corn  room ;)  (2)  dressing  room,  21  feet  6  inches  by  17  feet 
9  inches,  containing  two  fixed  winnowing  machines.  This 
apartment  is  over  the  engine  and  mill  rooms.  As  the  grain 
leaves  the  last  fanners  it  enters  an  opening,  descending  to 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  ground  floor,  and  is  received  into  bags. 
So  that,  from  the  time  of  putting  the  sheaf  into  the  threshing 
machine  till  it  is  bagged,  there  is  no  intermediate  manual  labor. 
The  hopper  of  the  mill  is  in  the  corner  of  this  apartment,  so 
that  the  grain  is  easily  transferred  thither  when  required. 

Tlie  steam-engine  is  eight  horse  power,  but  capable  of  being 
worked  to  ten.  It  is  a  high  pressure  engine,  and  has  a  vertical 
cylinder  with  an  eccentric  for  pumping  water  into  the  boiler, 
the  whole  being  firmly  fixed  on  a  solid  floor  of  granite.  The 
crank  attached  to  the  piston  turns  an  axle,  on  which,  at  a  few 
inches  from  the  crank,  a  fly-wheel  weighing  one  ton  is  attached, 
and  which  passes  through  the  wall  into  the  "  corn "  room, 
where  motion  is  obtained  from  a  double  pulley  on  this  axle,  by 
means  of  belts.  One  belt  is  carried  up  to  the  threshing  floor, 
for  communicating  motion  to  the  threshing  and  winnowing 
machines.  Another  belt  runs  flush  with  this  wall  to  another 
pulley,  attached  to  an  axle  going  through  the  same  wall,  for 
driving  a  "  bevelled  "  wheel,  which  communicates  motion  to 
two  shafts,  passing  in  opposite  direotions — one  to  the  chaff  room 
and  steam  shed,  the  other  running  up  to  the  liquid  manure 
propeller  and  dairy.  The  threshing  mill  is  on  the  Scotch  prin- 
ciple, and  absorbs  four  horse  power.  It  has  a  covered  drum 
with  projecting  edges  as  beaters.  There  is  only  one  shaker, 
consisting  of  a  revolving  cylinder  carrying  spikes.  The  straw 
falls  on  an  inclined  plane,  and  is  stored  in  an  adjoining  covered 
shed,  opening  to  the  east. 

The  threslicd  grain  falls  down  to  the  first  winnowing  machine, 
which  blows  the  chaff  into  a  small  apartment  adjoining  the  straw 


104  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

shed.  The  grain  falls  out  on  the  right  side,  and  is  elevated 
through  a  wooden  tube  (elevator)  by  a  series  of  tin  cups  attached 
to  a  leather  belt  kept  revolving  while  the  mill  is  at  work.  The 
grain  falls  from  this  elevator  into  the  second  winnowing  machine, 
and  then  into  tlie  third  in  the  dressing  room.  Any  unthreshed 
ears  of  grain  that  may  have  passed  through  the  mill,  fall  to  the 
left  of  the  first  winnowing  machine,  and  by  another  elevator 
are  brought  up,  and  falling  on  the  grain  on  the  feeding  board, 
are  passed  through  the  mill  again  and  again. 

A  governor  acts  on  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  in  the  side  opening 
of  the  fanners.  When  the  speed  of  the  fanners  is  fast,  this  piece 
of  metal  closes  in,  and  thus  diminishes  the  blast ;  when  the 
speed  is  slow,  it  opens  out  and  presents  no  obstruction  to  the 
ingress  of  the  air. 

The  three  fixed  fanners  described  turn  out  the  grain  pretty 
clean ;  but  for  seed  and  other  special  purposes,  Hornsby's  admi- 
rable fanners  have  been  recently  purchased.  This  machine 
seems  all  that  is  to  be  desired.  The  dimensions  are — length, 
5  feet  4  inches ;  width,  2  feet  6  inches ;  height,  4  feet  3  inches ; 
do.  to  top  of  hopper,  5  feet  6  inches.  So  far  there  has  been  no 
occasion  to  work  the  toothed  cylinder,  kept  revolving  amongst 
the  descending  grain,  which  forms  so  novel  a  feature  in  this 
machine. 

Over  the  boiler  is  a  kiln  for  preparing  grain,  «fec.,  for  the 
mill.  The  grain  is  introduced  into  the  kiln,  from  the  barn  loft, 
through  a  sluice  in  the  wall ;  and  when  kiln-dried  it  is  removed 
into  a  sack  in  the  corn  room,  through  another  sluice.  The  kiln 
consists  of  thirty  plates,  and  seven  malleable  iron  "  wheeps  "  ; 
the  cost  of  which,  includhig  fitting,  was  XIO  5s. 

The  stack-yard  is  a  spacious  area,  walled  in.  Metal  stands 
are  used  for  the  stacks.  The  pillars  are  cast-iron,  and  covered 
with  caps,  the  convex  side  downwards.  The  horizontal  bars 
are  made  of  wrought  iron  or  wood. 

The  liquid  manure  propellers  are  worked  by  the  engine. 
This  piece  of  machinery  is  placed  in  a  small  apartment,  over 
which  is  the  water  cistern  for  supplying  the  boiler,  taps  in  barn, 
cock  in  cooking  shed,  &c.  There  are  two  pistons,  each  four 
inches  diameter  and  two  feet  stroke.  It  was  estimated  to 
distribute  4,500  gallons  per  hour;  but  in  practice  it  never  dis- 
charges more  than  3,000  gallons  in  that  time.     Tiie  price  of 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  105 

pump  and  belts,  and  fitting  up,  was  £61  Is.    The  cistern,  which 
is  capable  of  holding  1,350  gallons,  cost  £38  13s.  lOd. 

The  dairy  has  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention.  The  first 
feature  that  merits  notice  is  the  open  shed,  facing  the  yard,  for 
airing  the  milk  vessels,  &c.  It  is  41  feet  6  inches  long,  and  11 
feet  6  inches  wide.  A  dairy  usually  contains  three  apartments : 
(1)  kitchen,  (2)  churning  room  and  (3)  milk  room;  and  if 
cheese  be  manufactured,  an  additional  apartment  is  required. 

Here  the-  churning  and  butter  dressing  are  performed  in  the 
dairy  kitchen,  which  is  kept  most  scrupulously  clean.  It  is  17 
feet  by  14  feet  9  inches.  It  has  a  granite  trough  for  washing 
vessels,  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water  cocks.  The  butter  is 
dressed  in  a  trough  of  polished  slate  flags,  to  the  left  as  you 
enter.  Its  dimensions  are — 4  feet  long,  2  feet  wide  and  4  inches 
deep.  By  turning  the  cock  immediately  over  it,  we  have  a 
supply  of  cold  water ;  by  lifting  a  tap  in  the  bottom,  this  water 
escapes. 

When  the  engine  is  at  work,  churning  can  be  done  by  steam. 
The  churn  is  placed  in  front  of  the  cone,  in  this  kitchen ;  and 
its  axes  being  fixed  in  the  cone,  the  churning  proceeds.  The 
extra  expense  for  churning  gear  (viz.,  34  feet  of  2-inch  shafting, 
4  brackets,  5  pillow  blocks,  9  bolts  for  brackets  and  pillow 
blocks  ;  1  shaft,  13i  feet  long  and  1?^  inch  diameter,  in  dairy; 
fast  and  loose  pulleys,  cone,  fitting  up,  &c.)  was  <£37,  9s. 

Rowan's  registered  churn  has  long  been  used  at  Glasnevin, 
with  most  satisfactory  results ;  and  is  the  one  generally  used, 
though  there  are  others  of  different  constructions. 

The  milk  room  is  50  feet  long  and  seventeen  feet  wide.*  It 
is  divided  into  two  compartments  by  a  transverse  wall,  having 
a  large  arched  opening.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  milk  vessels  : 
White  earthenware,  which  is  easily  cleaned,  but  liable  to  be 
broken  in  the  hands  of  careless  servants ;  glazed  earthenware, 
which  is  cheap  and  easily  cleaned ;  glass,  which  for  sweetness 
and  cleanliness  cannot  be  surpassed,  but  is  too  fragile  and  con- 
sequently too  expensive ;  enamelled  metal,  which  is  all  that 
could  be  desired,  if  the  enamelling  were  only  proof  against  the 
effects  of  hot  water ;  zinc,  which  by  some  is  considered  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  lactate  of  zinc  being  produced  ;    and 

*  Height  to  the  ceiling,  9  feet  10  inches. 
U 


106  BOARD   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

galvanized  iron,  which  is  admirable.  All  these  vessels  are 
shallow,  the  milk  being  about  three  inches  deep. 

The  milk  stands  consist  of  light  skeleton  metal  frames,  across 
which  are  laid  two  polished  slate  slabs ;  the  first  tier  being  1 
foot  6  inches  from  the  floor ;  the  upper,  three  feet ;  the  width 
is  1  foot  4  inches.  The  windows  (4  feet  9  inches  high,  by  3 
feet  10  inches  wide)  are  very  complete,  consisting  of  three 
distinct  parts,  each  movable  up  and  down  by  means  of  cords  and 
pulleys.  (1)  Externally  is  a  solid  shutter  of  wood  ;•  (2)  in  the 
middle  is  an  ordinary  glazed  window ;  and  (3)  inside  these  is  a 
close  cocoa-nut  screen,  which  serves  in  summer  the  double  pur- 
pose of  excluding  flies  and  keeping  the  apartment  cool.  By 
sponging  it  with  cold  water,  in  excessively  warm  weather,  the 
evaporation  reduces  the  temperature  down  to  a  moderate  degree. 

It  takes  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour  to  churn  with  Rowan's 
churn.  Butter  produced  in  less  than  half  an  hour  is  too  soft, 
and  when  the  churning  exceeds  an  hour  the  quality  is  seldom 
good.  On  on  average  it  takes  about  ten  quarts  of  milk  to  pro- 
duce one  quart  of  cream,  or  one  pound  of  butter.  It  is  found 
that  about  the  same  quantity  of  butter  is  produced,  whether 
the  whole  milk  or  cream  is  churned.  The  average  return  from 
each  of  the  twenty-six  milch  cows  at  the  Albert  Farm,  for  the 
twelve  months  ending  31st  March,  1858,  was  X18,  exclusive  of 
the  milk  consumed  by  pigs  and  young  stock. 

There  is  a  select  agricultural  library  for  the  use  of  the  pupils  ; 
a  laboratory ;  and  an  extensive  collection  of  minerals,  dried 
plants  and  diagrams  to  illustrate  the  various  lectures. 

In  addition  to  the  machinery  already  described,  there  is  a 
large  and  effective  bone  mill,  worked  by  steam  power. 

The  implements  consist  of  ploughs,  rollers,  grubbers,  the 
zigzag  harrow,  seed  sowers,  horse  hoes  and  horse  rakes,  all  of 
the  most  improved  pattern. 

The  crops  are  chiefly  wheat,  barley,  oats,  mangel  wurzel, 
Swedish  turnips,  potatoes,  beans,  carrots  and  Italian  rye  grass. 

Model  and  other  agricultural  schools  form  a  part  of  the  system 
of  agricultural  education,  established  in  Ireland  by  the  commis- 
sioners of  national  education,  which  comprise  several  distinct 
classes  of  agricultural  schools. 

1.  The  Albert,  or  central  institution,  Glasnevin,  which, 
besides  being  the  centre  of  life  and  action  to  the  entire  scheme, 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  107 

serves  as  a  departmental  section  of  the  training  establishment 
of  the  national  board.  Nearly  200  male  national  school  teachers, 
who  come  up  to  Dublin  annually  for  "  training,"  are  instructed 
in  the  leading  scientific  and  practical  facts  of  modern  husbandry. 

2.  A  class  denominated  "  Model  Agricultural  Schools,"  which 
are  either  in  connexion  with  district  model  literary  schools,  or 
specially  established  as  an  intermediate  grade  between  the 
Albert  institution  and  the  smaller  agricultural  schools  to  be 
presently  referred  to.     Of  this  class  there  were,  in  1860: — 

Twenty  under  the  exclusive  management  of  the  national 
board,  and  eighteen  under  the  management  of  local  patrons, 
landlords,  &c. 

3.  A  number  of  small,  called  "  ordinary  agricultural  schools," 
and  which,  like  the  model  agricultural  schools,  are  scattered 
throughout  the  provinces.  Of  these  there  were  forty-seven  in 
operation  in  1859. 

4.  Workhouse  agricultural  schools :  of  these  there  were  fifty- 
eight  in  1859. 

The  agricultural  education  afforded  in  the  workhouses  con- 
sists of  a  certain  amount  of  instruction,  calculated  to  make  the 
boys  skilled  in  the  execution  of  their  future  labors ;  and  to 
raise  their  thoughts  to  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  raw  materials 
on  which  they  will  have  to  operate,  and  to  the  best  and  most 
economical  ways  of  tilling  the  land  and  of  disposing  of  its 
produce. 

A  certain  amount  of  theoretic  and  practical  knowledge  is 
imparted  in  the  school-room,  wliich  the  boys  reduce  to  practice 
on  the  piece  of  ground  attached  to  the  workhouse,  under  the 
direction  of  a  competent  agriculturist. 

It  is  needless  to  argue  that  such  a  course  of  training  as  is 
afforded  in  those  workhouse  national  agricultural  schools  must 
promote  the  interests  of  the  nation  at  large.  It  has  vastly 
benefited  the  poor  themselves  who  have  received  it ;  it  has  ben- 
efited the  rich  by  increasing  the  supply  of  skilled  labor  ;  it  has 
benefited  the  tax-payers  by  diminishing  the  rates ;  and  it  has 
materially  contributed  to  the  harmony,  peace,  and  prosperity 
of  the  country,  by  promoting  habits  of  industry  and  that  spirit 
of  self-reliance  which  is  the  most  efficacious  preventive  of  crime. 
The  payments  made  by  the  national  board  on  account  of  this 
class  of  schools  in  1859  amounted  to  XodS  15s.,  or  about  X6 


108  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

Ss.  per  school.  In  forty-six  of  tliose  schools,  (whose  returns 
have  been  published)  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eleven, 
boys  received  the  agricultural  education  above  described,  at  an 
average  cost  of  3s.  4d.  per  boy. 

Ordinary  agricultural  schools,  as  the  name  indicates,  consist 
of  ordinary  national  schools  having  a  few  acres  of  ground 
attached  to  each.  In  these  schools  the  sons  of  farmers,  labor- 
ers, and  such  others  as  may  desire  it,  receive,  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  literary  education,  elementary  instruction  in  the 
science  and  practice  of  agriculture.  The  little  farms  are,  for 
the  most  part,  worked  by  the  boys.  The  teacher  of  a  school  of 
this  class  receives,  in  addition  to  his  literary  class  salary,  £5  a 
year  and  the  profits  of  the  farm. 

The  forty-seven  ordinary  agricultural  schools  in  operation  in 
1859  cost  .£269  Is.  2d.,  or  about  £5  15s.  per  school.  In  forty 
of  those  whose  returns  have  been  published,  one  thousand  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  boys  received  agricuhural  instruction 
at  a  cost  of  3s.  4d.  per  boy  per  annum.*  No  money  expended 
by  the  state  could  be  productive  of  more  benefit  than  the  small 
sum  expended  on  teaching  those  young  lads — the  rising  small- 
farmers  and  laborers  of  Ireland — correct  notions  of  the  art  by 
which  they  must  earn  their  bread ; — the  art  which  is  the  staple 
industry  of  their  country. 

The  outlay  on  "  ordinary  "  agricultural  schools  is  so  trivial 
compared  with  the  immense  advantages  derived  therefrom, 
that,  like  the  cost  of  agricultural  education  in  workhouses,  it 
may  reasonably  be  doubted  if  any  would  object  to  it.  Wiieu 
the  commissioners  of  national  education  engrafted  agricultural 
instruction  on  the  ordinary  secular  instruction  in  some  of  their 
country  schools,  they  observed  that: — "Considering  the  very 
backward  state  of  agriculture  in  Ireland,  and  that  it  forms  the 

*  In  the  English  agricultural  and  other  industrial  schools,  the  committee  of 
council  on  education  allow  5s.  for  each  industrial  scholar  when  a  special 
industrial  instructor  is  employed,  and  2s.  Gd.  when  the  ordinary  teachjer  con- 
ducts the  industrial  department.  In  addition  to  this  allowance  a  grant  is  made 
to  each  industrial  school  equal  to  half  the  rent  of  the  premises  specially  hired 
for  the  purpose,  and  one-third  the  cost  for  tools  or  raw  materials  for  labor.      , 

In  certified  industrial  schools  for  vagrants,  the  sum  of  Gd.  per  day,  up  to  a 
maximum  sum  of  £7  10s.  per  annum,  has  been  allowed  from  the  education 
grant  for  every  child  received  under  magisterial  sentence. — Vide  ParUamenlary 
Estimate,  1861-2.     IV.  131. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  109 

only  source  of  employment  for  a  vast  portion  of  the  laboring 
poor,  we  think  it  particularly  desirable  that  a  better  knowledge 
of  it  should  be  promoted  by  means  of  the  schools  under  us." 

Acting  upon  this  principle,  the  commissioners  encouraged, 
in  every  possible  way,  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  their 
country  schools.  For  a  long  time  they  preferred  employing 
the  funds  placed  at  their  disposal  in  making  small  grants  to  a 
large  number  of  schools  to  establishing  a  few  costly  model 
farms,  believing  that  "  the  chief  good  that  can  be  effected  by 
the  national  board  in  the  way  of  agricultural,  improvement  is 
by  blending,  in  as  many  national  schools  as  possible,  instruction 
in  agriculture,  and  daily  occupation  in  agriculture,  with  the 
literary  instruction  already  given  in  those  schools." 

Concurrently  with  the  introduction  by  the  commissioners  of 
agricultural  instruction,  on  this  inexpensive  scale,  into  their 
country  schools,  many  of  the  landed  gentry  took  aft  active  part 
in  promoting  the  establishment  of  a  class  of  agricultural  schools 
on  a  more  extensive  scale  than  those  previously  existing. 
They  deemed  it  all  important  that  provision  should  be  made 
for  agricultural  boarders,  who,  by  a  regular  course  of  appren- 
ticeship, would  study  the  theory  and  the  art  of  farming  in  a 
detailed  and  systematic  manner,  and  who  would,  in  after  life, 
become  intelligent  farmers,  land-stewards  and  agriculturists; 
in  which  capacities  it  was  expected  that  they  would  amply 
reimburse  the  country  for  the  outlay. 

In  this  way  arose  the  model  agricultural  schools,  whose  aim 
is  higher  and  whose  cost  is  greater  than  that  of  ordinary 
agricultural  schools. 

Of  the  model  agricultural  schools  there  are,  as  already 
mentioned,  two  classes: — 

(1.)  Those  under  the  management  of  local  patrons,  who  in 
most  cases  have  erected  the  farm  offices,  and,  in  some  cases, 
contributed  the  agricultural  plant.  With  one  or  two  excep- 
tions, the  teachers  rent  the  farms  from  the  patrons.  The  aid 
given  by  the  board  towards  the  maintenance  of  this  class  of 
schools  consists  of  grants  of  agricultural  books,  and  an  allow- 
ance to  the  teachers  for  agricultural  instruction  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  boarding  agricultural  pupils. 

The  number  of  pupils  educated  in  those  schools  in  1859  was — 


110  BOARD   OP  AGRICULTURE. 

Agricultural  boarders,        ....      62 
Agricultural  day  pupils,     ....     607 

Total, 669 

(2.)  Model  agricultural  schools  under  the  exclusive  manage- 
ment of  the  board. — The  farms  attached  to  these  schools  are 
rented  by  the  commissioners ;  the  farm  buildings  were  erected 
*by  them — aided  in  some  cases  by  local  contributions — and, 
with  some  exceptions,  the  farms  are  cultivated  for  and  at  the 
risk  of  the  commissioners,  by  agriculturists,  who  are  also 
charged  with  giving  agricultural  instruction  in  the  schools. 
The  number  of  pupils  educated  in  1859  was — 

Agricultural  boarders,        .         .         .         .154 
Agricultural  day  pupils,     .      "  .         .         .     538 

Total, 692 

Two  classes  of  agricultural  boarders  are  admitted  to  these 
schools,  namely  ^  pay  ins;  and/ree. 

Paying  pupils  are  submitted  to  a  qualifying  examination  in 
the  subjoined  programme,  so  that  none  should  enter  with  an 
education  so  deficient,  that  they  could  not  fully  benefit  by  the 
instruction  afforded. 

The  free  places  are  obtained  by  competitive  examination  in 
the  same  programme,*  and  such  additional  subjects  as  the  can- 
didate may  be  prepared  in. 

The  cost  to  the  pupils  on  these  farms  is  from  thirty  to  forty 
dollars  a  year  only,  for  those  who  pay. 

*  Programme  of  examination  for  candidates  for  admission  to  model  agricul- 
tural schools : — 

To  know  notation  and  numeration  well,  and  to  repeat  all  the  more  useful 
arithmetical  tables.  To  work  readily  questions  in  the  simple  and  compound 
rules  of  arithmetic.  To  distinguish  readily,  and  with  certainty,  in  any  easy 
sentences  selected'  from  the  daily  lessons,  all  the  parts  of  speech.  To  know 
the  maps  of  the  world  and  Europe.  To  write  on  paper  a  fair  hand.  To 
know  and  to  be  able  to  write  down  the  characters  or  marks  used  in  punctua- 
tion. To  write  down  correctly  easy  sentences  from  dictation.  To  write  out 
from  memory  the  time  and  money  tables.  To  read  and  spell  correctly  the 
words  of  an  easy  lesson,  and  to  explain  the  meaning. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT. 


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S     ii  s     I 


112  BOARD  OF   AGRICULTURE. 

The  course  of  instruction  comprises  : — 

1st.  A  sound  English  education,  including  reading,  writing, 
grammar,  and  composition,  geography,  history,  arithmetic, 
book-keeping,  the  elements  of  geometry  and  algebra,  and  land 
surveying. 

2d.  In  the  agricultural  department — The  elements  of  agri- 
cultural chemistry  and  of  animal  and  vegetable  physiology; 
drainage ;  tillage  by  manual  and  horse  labor,  with  the  descrip- 
tion and  use  of  the  different  implements  necessary  ;  rotation  of 
crops ;  preparation  of  the  soil  for,  time  and  mode  of  sowing, 
after-culture,  harvesting  and  economizing  the  different  crops 
cultivated ;  the  best  modes  of  collecting  and  preserving 
manures,  with  the  nature  and  utility  of  stimulants  and  special 
manures,  the  crops  to  which  they  should  be  applied,  at  what 
time,  and  in  what  quantity  ;  the  breeding,  rearing,  house-feed- 
ing, and  general  management  of  the  different  kinds  of  live 
stock  ;  and  the  mode  of  keeping  farm  accounts,  &c. 

The  school  farms  are  managed  by  men  wlio  were  trained  at 
the  Glasnevin  establishment,  and  who  are  expected  to  carry  out 
the  most  approved  and  economical  modes  of  farming.  They 
are  provided  with  improved  farm  implements,  approved  seeds 
and  manures.  The  live  stock  is,  in  many  cases,  of  pure  blood, 
and,  in  some  cases,  pure-bred  sires  are  kept  partly  for  home 
use,  and  partly  for  the  improvement  of  tlie  stock  in  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

The  farm  offices  are  also  arranged  on  approved  principles, 
and  substa'.^tially  built. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  agricultural 
instruction  forms  a  prominent  part  of  the  system  of  national 
education, — that  this  instruction  is  comparatively  open  and  free 
to  all  who  are  prepared  by  an  ability  to  pass  a  reasonable  exam- 
ination,— the  cost  being  so  low,  as  to  bring  its  advantages  witliin 
the  reach  of  all  classes.  There  are  one  hundred  and  thirty-four 
of  these  branch  schools  where  agriculture  is  taught. 

The  Albert  Model  Farui  and  Institution,  which  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  whole  system,  is  worthy  of  the  name  it  bears.  Tiie 
land  of  this  farm  is  hired  at  four  pounds,  or  twenty  dollars,  the 
statute  acre  a  year  rent,  on  a  lease  of  nine  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  years.  Here  the  boys  do  all  the  work, — a  man  being  hired 
now  and  then,  as  an  exception,  for  some  special  employment. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  118 

The  pupils  range,  from  seventeen  to  twenty-two  years  of  age. 
They  prefer  that  they  would  not  enter  under  twenty.  The  laud 
is  rich  and  under  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  as  it  ought  to  be, 
to  enable  the  institution  to  pay  so  high  a  rent. 

Every  thing  about  the  farm-buildings  is  plain  and  substantial. 
The  whole  establishment,  in  fact,  has  an  air  of  practical  work. 
The  dining-room  is  hung  with  the  drawings  and  lithographs  of 
prize  animals.  One  end  of  it  is  used  for  a  collection  of  imple- 
ments, seeds,  minerals,  &c., — all  labelled.  The  school-room  is 
furnished  with  plain,  hard  seats,  vastly  inferior  in  ease  and 
comfort  to  those  in  any  of  our  improved  school-rooms;  and 
hung  with  charts,  maps,  <fec.  It  has  various  kinds  of  apparatus, 
thermometer,  barometer;  rain-gauge,  on  the  outside  of  the 
window,  &c. ;  globes,  celestial  and  terrestrial,  &c.  The  chemi- 
cal laboratory  is  small  and  ill-supplied,  compared  with  the  same 
in  most  of  the  large  schools  on  the  continent,  but  probably  suffi- 
cient for  the  limited  instruction  in  this  department. 

The  farm  does  not  wholly  support  the  institution.  It  would 
be  unreasonable  to  expect  it,  with  the  high  rent  it  has  to  pay, 
and  the  small  amount  required  of  the  pupils,  which  covers 
board,  washing,  tuition,  &c.  I  was  told,  the  additional  cost  per 
pupil  to  the  government  was  twenty-four  pounds  a  year.  But 
the  farm  itself,  not  charging  it  with  the  labor  of  the  boys,  shows 
a  considerable  balance  in  its  favor. 

Tiie  stock  kept  on  both  farms  is,  usually,  seven  horses,  about 
fifty  cows  and  young  stock,  two  bulls,  from  forty  to  sixty  sheep, 
and  forty  to  fifty  swine.  The  cows  are  mostly  grade  Shorthorns. 
There  were  two  pure  Ayrshires  and  one  Kerry.  They  find  that 
nothing  exceeds  a  three-quarters  Shorthorn  for  profit,  when  the 
product  in  milk  and  the  economy  of  fattening  afterwards  is 
considered.  From  a  three-quarters  Shorthorn  and  one-quarter 
Irish  cow,  they  get  large  yields.  The  bulls  are  worked  in  the 
fields,  and  this  is  thought  to  improve  them.  The  pigs  are 
Yorkshires  and  Berkshires.  They  are  washed  about  once  a 
week.  The  Berkshires  are  the  most  hardy,  and  can  endure 
considerable  rough  usage ;  while  the  Yorkshires  are  a  little 
tender,  and  are  not  so  good  nurses. 

The  price  of  ordinary  dairy  cows  in  this  neighborhood  is  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  pounds,  or  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  dollars  ; 

16 


114  BOARI?  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

but  first-class  cows  for  the  dairy  bring  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
pounds. 

Vetches  are  sown  in  September,  at  the  rate  of  two  and  a  half 
bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre.  Witli  us,  they  thought,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  sow  in  April  or  May,  and  to  sow  about  half  a 
bushel  of  beans  or  oats  with  them,  as  a  support  to  the  stalk. 
They  feed  this  crop  out  green  for  soiling.  Sixteen  varieties  of 
Swedes  are  cultivated  on  two  acres  ;  and  they  say  that  none  are 
better  than  Skirving's  Improved, — the  only  objection  to  it  being 
its  bottle-neck.  The  Leicester  Swede  is  exceedingly  good.  The 
best  for  the  table  is  Laing's. 

The  flower-gardens  and  shrubbery  about  the  house  are  kept 
in  superb  order ;  and,  when  I  was  there,  every  thing  was  loaded 
with  luxuriant  foliage  and  teeming  with  fragrant  blossoms. 
Mrs.  Kirkpatrick — to  whom  I  was  indebted  for  a  great  deal  of 
civility — took  great  delight  in  showing  this  part  of  the  establish- 
ment ;  much  of  it,  no  doubt,  due  to  her  good  taste  aud  skill  in 
planning  and  directing. 

This  statement  with  regard  to  some  of  the  principal  agricul- 
tural schools  in  Europe  might  be  considerably  enlarged,  but  the 
practice  and  instruction  in  the  others  are  so  similar  to  those  that 
have  been  given,  that  it  is  believed  a  pretty  good  general  idea 
of  them  all  may  be  derived  from  the  foregoing  pages.  It  has 
been  seen,  that  a  large  and  influential  class  of  scientific  men  are 
devoting  their  lives  to  pursuits  connected  with  this  important 
branch  of  human  knowledge  ;  some  of  them  in  institutions 
designed  expressly  for  this  instruction,  isolated  and  independ- 
ent ;  others  in  connection  with  other  institutions,  old  and  long 
established. 

It  can  hardly  be  denied,  that  it  is  an  important  incidental 
advantage  to  any  country,  resulting  from  the  organization  of 
agricultural  institutions,  that  it  creates  a  class  of  men  who 
devote  their  higher  intelligence  and  their  entire  lives  to  investi- 
gations designed  to  promote  the  advancement  of  science  in  its 
relations  to  practice.  The  constant  contact  with  men  learned  in 
the  other  professions  and  sciences  ;  the  means  of  experiment  and 
study  at  their  disposal  in  a  college  for  professional  instruction, 
— like  that  at  Hohcnheim,  for  instance, — are  eminently  suited 
to  form  and  develop  those  choice  intellects  which  add  to  the 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  115 

glory  of  a  country  and  the  pride  of  the  people.  Well,  indeed, 
has  Hohenheim  paid  its  debt  in  this  respect ;  for,  since  its 
foundation,  many  scientific  professors  of  distinction  have  spread 
throughout  Germany  and  the  world,  the  valuable  practical 
knowledge  acquired  or  taught  by  them  at  that  royal  institute. 

The  circumstances  in  which  the  European  agricultural 
schools  have  gt'own  up,  and  the  state  of  society,  are  so  different 
from  our  own,  that  it  does  not  follow,  that  what  would  be  best 
for  them  and  for  the  condition  of  society  which  feeds  them, 
would  be  best  for  us.  I  am  inclined  to  think  the  system 
adopted  at  Glasnevin,  at  the  Albert  Model  Farm,  is  better 
adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  present  time  and  the  present 
condition  of  things  in  Ireland,  than  a  scientific  institute  connected 
with  the  University  of  Dublin,  or  with  any  other,  would  be. 

Nor  do  I  think  tliat  any  impartial  observer  can  fail  to  see, 
that  had  the  agricultural  college  of  Cirencester  been  connected 
with  one  of  the  universities,  Cambridge  or  Oxford,  it  would  be 
more  likely  to  accomplish  the  ends  which  it  now  proposes  to 
itself,  would  possess  greater  vitality,  and  receive  a  far  more 
liberal  patronage  from  the  class  of  people  it  now  aims  to  edu- 
cate, than  it  does,  or  is  likely  to,  in  any  time  to  come.  It 
would  have  been  able  to  secure  and  retain  the  highest  scientific 
talent ;  while  the  farm  which  is  now  used  simply  as  a  model  for 
illustration,  on  which  the  students  do  not  work,  would  have 
been  equally  valuable  and  important  on  the  downs  of  Oxford- 
shire or  on  the  fens  of  Cambridge. 

In  Germany,  where  the  experience  has  been  longer  than  in 
any  other  part  of  Europe,  the  question  of  connecting  agricul- 
tural institutes  with  others,  or  of  having  isolated  and  independ- 
ent establishments,  has  long  been  agitated,  and  is  now  more 
warmly  discussed  than  ever  before ;  one  party — and  it  is  proba- 
bly by  far  the  larger — taking  the  ground  for,  and^the  other 
against  such  union ;  each  governed,  in  a  measure,  no  doubt, 
by  personal  experience  in  the  one  or  the  other  system. 

iSo  far  as  I  was  able  to  inform  myself,  the  ground  taken  by 
the  advocates  of  a  union  with  the  universities  is,  that  it  is  better 
for  a  young  man  setting  out  to  procure  a  liberal  education 
in  agriculture,  to  lay  the  foundation  in  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  general  principles  embodied  in  the  wide  range  of  sciences 
which  bear  more  or  loss  directly  upon  agriculture,  and  then  to 


116  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

devote  himself  to  the  application  of  those  principles  by  prac- 
tical labor  on  a  suitable  farm  or  farms  for  one  or  more  years, 
or  till  he  becomes  efficient  in  the  manipulations.  This  course 
will  be  seen,  on  reflection,  to  be  closely  analogous  to  our 
present  most  approved  modes  of  acquiring  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  law,  medicine  and  divinity. 

Suppose  a  young  man  wants  to  become  a  lawyer.  Is  it 
better  to  go  first  into  the  office  of  some  successful  man  in  large 
practice,  where  he  must  fall  at  once  into  the  routine *of  office 
work,  filling  out  forms,  copying  writs,  looking  up  titles,  and  a 
thousand  other  details,  or  to  study  a  year  or  two  at  a  law 
school,  under  the  guidance  and  instruction  of  the  highest  lights 
in  the  profession,  where  he  will  see  little  of  the  details  of  prac- 
tice, to  be  sure,  but  where  he  can  hardly  fail,  if  he  has  any 
application  at  all,  to  obtain  a  widely  extended  general  view  of 
the  great  principles  which  underlie  the  whole  structure  of  the 
profession,  and  where  he  can  occupy  himself  "in  tracing  out 
the  originals,  and,  as  it  were,  the  elements  of  the  law,"  and 
afterwards  go  into  an  office  and  become  familiar  with  the  routine 
of  practice  ? 

Some  would  answer  in  one  way,  no  doubt,  and  others  in 
another.  Some  might  regard  the  time  at  the  law  school  as 
comparatively  thrown  away;  others  would  esteem  it  as  of  the 
utmost  importance.  The  latter  would  justify  it  by  saying  that 
the  broad  groundwork  of  general  principles  which  the  school 
would  give  the  young  man,  would  be  of  untold  value  in  all  the 
emergencies  of  after  practice,  while,  ten  chances  to  one,  if  he 
began  with  the  details  of  practice,  he  would  never  rise  to  gen- 
eral principles.  In  the  former  case,  after  becoming  familiar 
with  general  principles,  a  familiarity  with  practice  must  be 
obtained,  as  a  matter  of  course,  as  every  thing  depends  upon  it. 

It  wou^^  be  unfair,  I  think,  to  assert  that  the  advocates  of 
university  teaching  in  Germany  undervalue  practice.  If  I 
understand  their  position,  it  is  that  the  union  of  the  highest 
education  in  the  sciences  and  in  the  practice,  is  incompatible 
at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  school,  and  they  advise  the 
pupil  to  begin  at  the  fountain  head  and  become  well  grounded 
in  the  scientific  principles,  and  then  to  go  on  to  a  farm  under 
a  competent,  practical  man,  and  learn  the  details  of  farm 
management. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  117 

If  this  is  a  correct  statement  of  their  position,  the  idea  of 
commencing  in  a  lower  grade  school  with  the  intention  of  going 
up  into  tlie  higher  scientific  institute  afterwards,  as  a  sort  of 
finishing  off  of  their  education,  is  equally  impracticable  ;  that  is, 
according  to  them,  it  would  be  beginning  at  the  wrong  end. 
Whether  they  are  correct  or  not,  it  is  not  for  me  to  say  ;  but  I 
give  it  as  tlie  result  of  their  long  experience,  and  of  their 
thought  and  observation  upon  the  subject,  and  as  such  worthy 
of  careful  consideration  in  establishing  similar  institutions 
with  us. 

I  do  not  know  that  it  would  serve  any  good  purpose  to  enter 
at  length  into  a  development  of  the  controversy  now  going  on 
in  Germany  upon  this  question,  owing  to  the  fact,  already  inti- 
mated, that  the  state  of  society  is  so  diflferent,  the  lines  of  caste 
there  so  jiicely  drawn,  and  the  objects  proposed  in  an  agricultural 
education  so  distinct  from  our  own.  But  it  may  be  remarked 
that  Liebig  has  taken  the  ground  very  strenuously  in  favor  of  a 
connection  with  the  universities,  and  that  a  great  majority  of 
the  agriculturists  adopt  that  view,  or  take  a  middle  ground, 
that  the  location  should  be  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  some 
established  university,  partly  as  a  means  of  bringing  the 
students  under  university  laws,  and  partly  as  a  means  of  giving 
the  professors  a  higher  position  in  the  cistimation  of  their 
pupils,  and  of  availing  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  the 
collections,  libraries,  &c.,  which  a  university  can  offer,  as  well 
as  of  the  talent  of  university  professors.  Volumes  have  been 
written  upon  the  subject. 

Tlie  question  in  favor  of  the  universities  has  been  fully  stated 
in  a  work  of  200  pages  octavo,  by  Dr.  Birnbaum  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Giessen,  entitled  The  Universities  and  Isolated  Agri- 
cultural Institutes,  Giessen,  1862.  He  sums  up  in  the  following 
propositions : — 

(1.)  The  simultaneous  application  of  the  practical  skill 
requisite  for  management  and  the  theoretical  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  understanding  the  business,  is  inadmissible,  and  for 
teachers  and  pupils  alike  impracticable. 

(2.)  Tlie  practicing  farmer,  the  practical  man,  is,  as  a  rule, 
in  all  cases  in  which  he  directs  his  estate,  not  quite  adapted  to 
give  instruction,  not  suitable  as  a  teacher  for  beginners,  but 
indeed — capacity  and  desire  aside — to  be  recommended  as  a 


118  BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

model  and  pattern  for  trusty  young  farmers  well  grounded  in 
the  elements. 

(3.)  Good  schooling  is  most  important  at  present  for  the 
farmer,  and  must  therefore  not  be  interrupted  before  the  age 
of  seventeen. 

(4.)  After  suitable  schooling  the  learning  of  the  practice  can 
be  begun  on  such  middling  and  smaller  estates  where  the  chief 
design  is  the  education  of  young  farmers,  and  wjicre  only  a 
number  of  scholars  proportioned  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
farm  are  taken.  When  the  instruction  is  finished  through 
the  assistance  of  schools  wliere  the  languages  and  the  applied 
sciences  are  taught,  and  others,  nothing  further  will  remain. 

(5.)  After  a  stay  of  one  or  two  years  in  such  a  practical 
preparatory  school,  it  is  most  judicious  for  the  young  man  to 
serve  some  time  as  volunteer  or  under  steward  on  a  larger 
estate. 

Now  and  then  a  change  is  to  be  recommended,  though  not 
too  frequently. 

(6.)  Only  well-trained  young  men  should  be  admitted  into 
the  higher  institutes. 

(7.)  Tiie  higher  institute  should  have  in  view  only  the  scien- 
tific training,  such  as  answers  for  the  higher  development  of 
the  profession  and  science. 

(8.)  The  most  judicious  location  is  therefore  tlie  university, 
in  case  a  capable  corps  of  instruction  and  requisite  apparatus 
can  be  furnished. 

(9.)  The  establishment  of  chairs  of  agriculture  at  the  uni- 
versities, and  their  adequate  endowment,  should  be  desired  for 
the  agricultural  interest,  as  well  as  for  all  others. 

(10.)  The  connection  of  scientific  or  other  agricultural 
institutes  with  large  estates,  is  only  useful  when  these  are 
carried  on  quite  independently  by  themselves,  and  either  the 
director,  or  perhaps  one  of  the  professors,  has  the  management 
of  the  domain. 

(11.)  The  farm  property  so  situated  will  most  judiciously  be 
carried  on  as  a  model  establishment,  but  in  this  case,  without 
regard  to  the  institute,  and  to  secure  respect,  it  should  issue 
the  most  complete  public  accounts.  Such  an  establishment 
need  not  be  located  in  immediate  connection  with  the  institute 
of  instruction,  and  may  be  from  five  to  eight  miles  away. 


SECRETARY'S  REPORT.  119 

(12.)  A  place  and  location  foi^experiments,  the  special  field 
of  instruction  belonging  to  the  institute,  should  not  be  wanting, 
yet  it  should  serve  only  for  the  purposes  of  science  and  instruc- 
tion, and  therefore  not  be  carried  on  with  reference  to  the 
highest  profit. 

(13.)  The  professors  of  agriculture  should  be  fitly  educated, 
practically  and  scientifically,  and  be  appointed  only  on  the 
ground  of  this  special  fitness. 

(14.)  The  present  stand-point  of  science  requires  the  ap- 
pointment of  special  professors  for  the  more  important  aux- 
iliary branches,  and  the  holding  of  several  departments  by  one 
person  is  impracticable. 

(15.)  The  teaching  of  the  auxiliary  sciences  is  judicious  for 
farmers,  but  never  should  be  given  as  the  so-called  agricultural 
science. 

(16.)  The  course  of  instruction  in  agriculture  can  be  com- 
pleted in  two  years  only  in  case  of  a  good  preparatory  educa- 
tion to  begin  with.  Tliose  less  thoroughly  prepared  will  have 
to  devote  one  or  more  extra  terms  to  the  study  of  the  auxiliary 
sciences.  Institutes  which  profess  to  teach  the  whole  of  agri- 
culture to  those  imperfectly  prepared,  in  two  years,  are  worthy 
of  no  confidence. 

(17.)  The  student  of  agriculture  must  have  full  control  of 
his  actions,  like  other  students,  and  not  feel  under  restraint. 

(18.)  The  connection  of  lower  grade  schools  (where  the 
pupils  do  the  work)  with  the  higher  institutes,  is  to  be  rejected. 

(19.)  It  is  desirable,  if  the  institutes  are  connected  with 
universities,  and  properly  founded  and  endowed,  to  have 
experimental  stations,  adequately  endowed,  created  in  connec- 
tion with  them. 

(20.)  Tlie  maintenance  of  institutes  located  from  financial 
or  other  reasons  in  connection  with  a  university,  appears  then 
the  more  secure,  if  reorganized  and  carried  on  according  to 
this  plan. 

The  great  majority  of  what  are  called  agricultural  schools  in 
Europe  are  mere  manual  labor  schools,  and  on  a  very  limited 
scale  at  that.  In  Ireland  alone  there  are  one  hundred  and 
thirty-four  such  schools.  France  has  three  regional  scliools  on 
the  same  footing  as  that  at  Grignon,  though  I  believe  the  two 
others  are  not  quite  so  flourishing,  one  agronomic  institute  at 


120  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Versailles,  and  many  inferior  schools,  carried  on  in  a  small 
way,  where,  in  addition  to  the  elements  of  education,  more  or 
less  instruction  is  given  in  agriculture,  and  where  the  pupils 
have  to  work ;  and  this  is  the  case  in  many  otlier  continental 
countries.     In  some  of  their  schools  the  preponderance  of  other 
studies  is  so  great  that  it  is  not  easy  to  see  why  they  are  called 
agricultural  schools.     There  are,  besides,  many  special  schools 
which    are   frequently    called    agricultural   schools ;    as,    for 
instance,  the  school  for  the  management  of  forests,  at  Tharand. 
It  is  desirable  that  we  should  fix  in  our  minds  some  definite 
aim  and  develop  beforehand  the  precise  object  that  we  wish  to 
attain  ;  that  is,  whether  we  sliall  establish  a  college  on  the  plan 
of  the  higher  scientific  institutes  abroad,  or  on  that  of  the 
schools  of  practice,  contenting  purselves  with  a  lower  scale  of 
scientific  attainment  for  the  sake  of  the  advantages  of  a  more 
skilful,  and  perhaps  a'  more  enlightened  practice.     It  is  hardly 
reasonable  to  expect,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  experience  in 
other  countries,  to  make  thoroughly  scientific  agriculturists  in 
the  course  of  two  or  three,  or  even  four  years,  if  a  large  part 
of  the  time  of  the  pupil  is  to  be  devoted  to  manual  labor  on 
the  farm.     At  the  same  time  it  may  be  said  that  we  do  not  wish 
to  educate  our  sons  so  as  to  make  them  feel  above  work  on 
the  farm.     No  school  that  accomplished  such  a  result  would 
long  commend  itself  to  the  confidence  of  the  people. 

The  work  of  deciding  this  question  satisfactorily  and  of  carry- 
ing into  operation  a  scheme  of  such  magnitude  as  that  now 
proposed  in  most  of  the  loyal  States  of  the  Union  is  one  of  great 
difficulty  and  responsibility,  and  one  in  which  the  parties  on 
whom  the  responsibility  rests  will  need  the  confidence,  the 
forbearance  and  the  cordial  cooperation  of  the  people.  It  will 
require  caution,  judgment  and  practical  wisdom,  on  the  one 
baud,  and  a  candid  appreciation  of  the  difficulties  and  the 
entertainment  of  reasonable  expectations,  on  the  other.  It 
will  require  faith  in  the  application  of  science  to  the  improve- 
ment of  practice.  We  know  that  it  has  elevated  other  arts, 
improved  the  appliances  of  labor  and  cheapened  the  production 
of  the  necessaries  of  life.  Why  should  it  not  lead,  within  a  rea- 
sonable time,  to  more  enlightened  processes  of  farm-work,  bring 
mind  and  thought  to  bear  upon  the  labors  of  the  hand,  and 
infuse  new  spirit  into  the  whole  farming  community  ? 


ALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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